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I will solve the exam in social science political process. Problems of the political process

Social Studies. Full course of preparation for the Unified State Examination Shemakhanova Irina Albertovna

4.11. Political process

Political process: 1) dynamic response of the entire political system in general, a consistent change in its states, stages of development; 2) the activities of people in various groups regarding the struggle for power and its use to achieve their individual and group interests; 3) a consistent, internally connected chain of political events and phenomena, as well as a set of consistent actions of various political subjects aimed at gaining, retaining, strengthening and using political power in society.

Typology of political processes

* within the framework of comparative political science ( L. Pye): connects the fundamental differences in the political development of Western and non-Western countries with the cultural "code" that determines the practical orientations and behavior of the population in them;

* the cultural heterogeneity of Western societies creates the basis for the existence of two versions of the political process:

- distinguish two "ideal types" of the political process ( M. Weber), which correspond to two types of political culture: non-statist (democratic) and statist (technocratic, elitist);

- two political and cultural orientations determine two interpretations of political processes:

but) horizontally organized political process - is built on the organization of formal equality and relative autonomy of its main participants and is represented by political power, government and pressure groups;

b) vertically organized the political process is characterized by a spontaneous manifestation of the interests, needs, way of thinking of the masses, which is opposed by state power, an organized system of values and political science; the ability of managers to coordinate the interests of various groups of society, to guarantee a certain degree of freedom of society;

* according to the ways of achieving the dynamic balance of the political system in the course of its transformations:

– technocratic. Among the factors of political change, preference is given to political technologies and procedures: norms, traditions, procedures for making political decisions, methods of legitimate empowerment. This type has developed in countries with a relatively high homogeneity of the cultural environment - in the Anglo-Saxon countries. The adherence of the majority of the population to traditions ensures the stability of the political system, the preservation high efficiency its political institutions, since the leaders act as the bearer of the interests of those institutions that they directly represent.

– ideocratic the political process is typical for traditional societies, where there is no autonomous personality, developed differentiation of political roles and functions that are at the initial stage of modernization. It is possible to integrate a society heterogeneous in ethno-cultural and socio-economic relations on the basis of a national idea.

– charismatic the political process is characteristic of the eastern cultural tradition, within which the role and status of the political leader are absolutized, and often he is simply deified. The charismatic type of political change is effective if it is complemented by technocratic and ideocratic political processes.

Main types of political processes

- the formation of the organs of the political system: in the course of it, previously non-existing political institutions are created and relations between them regulated by special norms are established;

- reproduction of the components and features of the political system in the process of its functioning: political life consists not only of continuous renewal, the emergence of previously non-existing political relations and institutions, but also of actions to maintain these relations in a stable state through the use of mechanisms such as traditions, procedures , legal and ideological prescriptions;

- adoption and implementation of political decisions that determine the tasks and methods of their solutions, which select the means to achieve political goals, the direction of political actions.

The interrelation of these processes gives rise to a complex combination of actions aimed at ensuring the constancy, inviolability of political relations and their change, at giving them dynamics and renewal.

Extreme types of political process are distinguished by social composition, degree of intensity, duration, possible success, level of organization, spiritual and psychological impulses that inspire participants:

but) insurrection: any uprising is inherent in a certain level of organization, leaders who put forward certain goals play a big role here. These goals are justified in a simple program, slogans.

b) riot: mass action, having a very a high degree intensity, activity of its participants, but is even more limited by the time of the course, as well as by the problem, the reason that caused it; almost always a response to any extraordinary actions of representatives of the dominant political groups, government agencies without outgrowing the limited tasks of resisting individual government actions.

in) rebellion: in terms of intensity, emotional tension, it is close to a riot, but unlike it, it has a more limited number of participants. The rebellion arises as a result of a thoughtful, purposeful preparation of a certain group of people, is of an armed nature, the emphasis is on military force, and the main core of the rebels is usually the army. A person is subject to emotions, and his actions are increasingly losing touch with the real conditions and possibilities of society.

G) putsch It is expressed in armed actions that do not rely on either broad support, or taking into account the situation, or a well-thought-out program.

* Local-regional and global processes (mutual transitions).

* Stable and crisis processes.

* Legal and "shadow" processes.

The main components of the political process: functioning state institutions(government and police, parliament and special services, activities of parties and pressure groups, individual activity of citizens); the relationship of conscious and spontaneous activity, that is, state-regulated actions and spontaneous actions of groups of citizens and individuals.

Political decision - this is a process carried out in a collective or individual form of determining the tasks of political action, stages, ways to achieve them, and connection with the exercise of power.

Political decision functions: 1) coordination- coordination of the efforts of a diverse mass of people acting in constantly changing circumstances; 2) correlation- making changes to the tactics of movement, especially when new circumstances, conditions of activity appear that make it difficult or easier to implement the task; 3) programming- making a choice effective way combination of ends and means, which in the political process is to find the most rational option for activity.

Planning the political process:

Coordination of goals and stages of activity of political institutions and movements involved in this political process;

Bringing to the greatest possible number of its participants the program of action;

Assessment of the situation in which the political action will unfold in order to identify its main dominants, the nodes of interaction of contradictions and interests, on the impact on which the success of the planned political action depends;

Taking measures to create an appropriate psychological mood of the participants in the political process, which would contribute to, stimulate their actions towards the implementation of the chosen goal.

Causes of political conflicts: differences of interests, rivalry and struggle of socio-professional, ethno-confessional, elite and other groups, strata, communities and individuals in the process of acquiring, redistributing and implementing political state power, mastery and use of leading positions in the institutions and structures of this power. Political conflicts are associated with consciously formulated goals aimed at the redistribution of power.

Types of conflicts: between executive and legislative power at different levels; intra-parliamentary; between various links of the administrative apparatus, between the goals of managerial activity and structural limitations of managerial capabilities; between groups (parties) adhering to different ideological or political attitudes.

political order is a set of activities that favorable conditions for the effective and expedient functioning and development of the political system of society, this is the state of regulation of political processes. The political order characterizes the state of the political system, its ability to political mobilization and the implementation of planned actions.

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Select the correct judgments about the political process and socio-political movements and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) The political process is associated with solving the problem of limited economic resources.

2) Households and firms are subjects of the political process.

3) In the political process, the relationship between reformist and conservative principles is manifested.

4) At the implementation stage, the adopted political decisions are clothed in a legal form, their address and the circle of persons, organizations responsible for their implementation are determined

5) Taking into account various circumstances, the subjects of the political process develop alternative courses of action to achieve the desired results.

Explanation.

The political process is a consistent, internally connected chain of political events and phenomena, as well as a set of consistent actions of various political subjects aimed at gaining, retaining, strengthening and using political power in society. The political process is the cumulative and consistent activity of social communities, socio-political organizations and groups, individuals pursuing certain political goals.

The political process as a whole: the course of development of political phenomena, the totality of the actions of various political forces (subjects of politics), trends seeking to achieve certain political goals; the form of functioning of a certain political system of society, evolving in space and time; one of the social processes, in contrast to the legal, economic, etc.; designation of a specific process with the final result of a certain scale (revolution, reform of society, formation of a political party, movement, strike progress, election campaign, etc.).

In relation to society as a whole, the political process reveals the interaction of social and political structures and relations, that is, it shows how society forms its statehood, and the state, in turn, “conquers society”. From the point of view of the internal content, the political process expresses a kind of technology for the exercise of power, representing a set of relatively independent, local interactions of subjects, structures and institutions connected by certain goals and interests in maintaining (or changing) the system of government.

The structure of the political process includes three main elements.

The subjects of politics are those who take an active, conscious part in political activity: individuals and their groups that implement independently developed programs of action, carry out their conscious goal and have the ability to manifest themselves as aggregate subjects. Any actions of political subjects ultimately pursue one goal: to influence the decisions made by the state authorities. The actual political process begins with the identification of a problem, the search for its solution in the interaction of all interested political forces and ends with one or another result, which is expressed in the actions of the authorities.

The object must be created or achieved as the goal of the political process.

The means, methods, resources of the process executors connect the subject and the target object. The resources of the political process can be its ideal and material foundations - science, knowledge, technical and financial means, the mood of the masses, participants in the process, ideology and other factors.

1) The political process is connected with the solution of the problem of limited economic resources - no, that's not true.

2) Households and firms are subjects of the political process - no, not true.

3) In the political process, the relationship between reformist and conservative principles is manifested - yes, that's right.

4) At the implementation stage, the adopted political decisions are clothed in a legal form, their address and the circle of persons and organizations responsible for their implementation are determined - yes, that's right.

5) Taking into account various circumstances, the subjects of the political process develop alternative courses of action to achieve the desired results - yes, that's right.

Answer: 345.

Denis Ulanov 04.06.2017 10:03

3 answer is not correct, because the reformist beginnings are a gradual change in the system, and the conservative one is not a change in the system. They cannot interact.

Valentin Ivanovich Kirichenko

Can and interact

Select the correct judgments about the political process and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) The political process is a certain technology for the adoption and implementation of power decisions.

2) Participants in the political process are the elite strata of society.

3) In the political process, the relationship between reformist and conservative principles is manifested.

4) The political process, as a rule, is destructive.

5) In the course of the political process, as a rule, the ideas of market self-regulation and the protection of human rights and freedoms are implemented.

Explanation.

1) The political process is a certain technology for the adoption and implementation of power decisions - yes, that's right.

2) Participants in the political process are the elite strata of society - yes, that's right.

3) In the political process, the relationship between reformist and conservative principles is manifested - yes, that's right.

4) The political process, as a rule, is destructive - no, incorrectly, as a rule, constructive.

5) In the course of the political process, as a rule, the ideas of market self-regulation and the protection of human rights and freedoms are implemented - no, incorrectly, others can.

Answer: 123.

Alsu Khafizova 01.02.2017 16:35

In the reference book for preparing for the Unified State Examination by P.A. Baranov, in topic 4.11 "The political process" it is written "The political process, as a rule, consists of an infinite sum of politically significant actions of the participants included in it - the subjects of the political process (citizens, interest groups, political parties and movements, professional and creative unions, youth, women's and other organizations, mass media).

Valentin Ivanovich Kirichenko

We just don't have a word.

Julia Melnik 07.02.2017 19:10

WHAT DO YOU HAVE NO WORDS???!!! The man is indeed right. For example, elections are one of the forms of the political process. All citizens over the age of 18 participate in them. NOT ONLY ELITE, BUT SIMPLE PEOPLE!!!

Valentin Ivanovich Kirichenko

Words ONLY

Lily Ives 15.02.2017 14:11

Participants in the political process are the elite strata of society. - Yes, that's right.

"The political process, as a rule, consists of an infinite amount of politically significant actions of the participants included in it - the subjects of the political process (citizens, interest groups, political parties and movements, professional and creative unions, youth, women's and other organizations, the media)

The answer does not agree with what is written in all textbooks. The moderator (Valentin Ivanovich Kirichenko), if it is him, when asked why this is so, behaves somehow inappropriately. Please clarify the situation or correct the answer.

Valentin Ivanovich Kirichenko

It seems inadequate people are asking the same question. Elite strata are participants in the political process, but this is an indisputable and irrefutable fact. In judgment 2 nothing is said that this is the only subject of the political process, which means it is true. What else is unclear?

Alexandra Levshina 18.02.2017 11:04

"5) In the course of the political process, as a rule, the ideas of market self-regulation and the protection of human rights and freedoms are implemented. NO. Wrong. Others can."

It turns out that the answer here is incorrect (if you follow your (Valentin Ivanovich Kirichenko) logic (similar to paragraph 3 of the same task). In judgment 5, the word "only" is missing, which means it is correct.

Please clarify the situation or correct the answer.

Muharbek Dakhkilgov 09.04.2017 19:08

Participants in the political process are the elite strata of society.

You could simply state the statement differently, namely:

"The elite strata of society are participants in the political process"

Then there will be no questions.

Valentin Ivanovich Kirichenko

Question and answer from KImov developers

Anastasia Terenyak 18.05.2017 14:43

Dear students!

I am also taking the Unified State Examination in Social Studies and I am already emphasizing very simple rules:

-) be careful. HOW you read the task will depend on your answer. Let's say question 2. "Participants in the political process are the elite strata of society." It is correct, the word "only" is not here - which would be an obvious mistake.

-) to be grateful. The fact is that the RESHUEGE website gives everyone the opportunity to decide, to learn. Yes, everything is not always clear, not all explanations are legibly written, but what do you need Yandex or Google for? Forward. There are errors on this site, but they are extremely rare. Check the "mistakes" a hundred times before writing here and embarrassing yourself!

Write down the missing word in the table.

TYPES OF POLITICAL PROCESSES

Explanation.

Political processes associated with the adoption of key political decisions and characterized by a variety of ways of political participation of citizens are basic political processes.

Answer: basic.

Answer: basic

Valentin Ivanovich Kirichenko

Depending on the criteria, political processes can be divided into the following types:

1. basic and peripheral.

2. domestic political and foreign policy,

3. revolutionary and evolutionary

4. engaged and non-engaged,

5. open and hidden,

6. stable and unstable.

Leyla Etieva 03.03.2017 14:37

Do the real exams take into account synonyms?

Valentin Ivanovich Kirichenko

The Public Opinion Research Center conducted a series of sociological surveys of citizens of country Z. Respondents (survey participants) were asked to answer the question: “In your opinion, can you influence political processes in the country?” The survey results (as a percentage) are presented in the table.

Find in the list the conclusions that can be drawn on the basis of the table, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) Less than a third of respondents in 2008 were skeptical about the possibility of influencing the political processes in the country.

2) According to the polls in 2008 and 2010, the majority of respondents expressed doubts about the possibility of influencing the political processes in the country.

3) The share of respondents who are firmly convinced that there are no opportunities to influence political processes in the country decreased by 6% in 2010 compared to 2008.

4) According to the surveys of 2008 and 2010, the share of respondents who are firmly confident in their ability to significantly influence the political processes in the country remains at the lowest level.

5) In general, the period under review can be characterized as a major breakthrough towards solving the problem of political participation.

Explanation.

1) Less than a third of the respondents in 2008 were skeptical about the possibility of influencing the political processes in the country - no, not true.51 plus 36, this is not less than a third, but much more than half.

2) According to the polls in 2008 and 2010, the majority of respondents expressed doubts about the possibility of influencing the political processes in the country - yes, that's right.

3) The proportion of respondents who are firmly convinced that there are no opportunities to influence the political processes in the country decreased by 6% in 2010 compared to 2008 - no, that's not true.

5) In general, the period under review can be characterized as a major breakthrough towards solving the problem of political participation - no, not true.

Answer: 24.

Answer: 24

2) make two sentences:

− one sentence containing information on the forms of political participation of citizens;

- one sentence revealing the main task of the subjects of the political process.

Explanation.

The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) the meaning of the concept, for example: the political process is a set of actions of political subjects aimed at exercising their roles and functions within the political system, at realizing their own interests and goals; (Another definition that is close in meaning may be given.)

2) one sentence with information about the forms of political participation of citizens: The forms of political participation of citizens are elections and referendums, rallies and participation in political organizations, appeals to public authorities; (Another proposal may be made containing

information on the forms of political participation of citizens.)

3) one sentence, which, based on the knowledge of the course, reveals the main task of the subjects of the political process, for example: The main task of the subjects of the political process is to win and use state power to implement certain interests. (Another proposal can be drawn up, revealing, based on knowledge of the course, the main task of the subjects of the political process.)

1) reveal the meaning of the concept of "political process";

2) make two sentences:

- one sentence containing information about the subjects of the political process;

- one sentence containing information about the features of a democratic political process.

Sentences should be widespread and contain correct information about the relevant aspects of the concept.

Explanation.

The political process is a process that includes the political participation of citizens in the functioning of the state.

Offers:

1) One of the subjects of the political process are the citizens of the state.

2) The democratic political process is characterized by the power of the people, the equality of all before the law and the holding of democratic elections and referendums.

Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) The integrative function of political culture is associated with the formation of citizens' knowledge, views, and beliefs necessary for participation in the political life of the country.

2) The servile type of political culture is characterized by a passive attitude towards the political system.

3) The bearers of civil political culture tend to be active participants in the political process.

4) The normative function of political culture is associated with the formation of political qualities, the political socialization of the individual.

5) The patriarchal political culture is characterized by a complete lack of interest among community members in political institutions, global political processes.

Explanation.

1) The integrative function of political culture is associated with the formation of citizens' knowledge, views, and beliefs necessary for participation in the political life of the country. No, not true. It's about learning function.

2) The servile type of political culture is characterized by a passive attitude towards the political system. Yes, that's right.

3) The bearers of civil political culture tend to be active participants in the political process. Yes, that's right.

4) The normative function of political culture is associated with the formation of political qualities, the political socialization of the individual. No, it's not true. It is about educational function.

5) The patriarchal political culture is characterized by a complete lack of interest among community members in political institutions, global political processes. Yes, that's right.

Answer: 235

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic "Subjects of the political process." The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

1. The concept of subjects of the political process, their types:

a) the state;

b) social groups;

c) political parties;

e) political elites;

e) citizens.

2. State:

a) signs of the state;

6) the form of the state;

c) internal and external functions of the state;

d) the resources of power used by the state.

3. Social, ethnic, confessional groups.

4. Political parties and social movements.

5. The role of the media in the political process.

6. Political elite:

a) recruiting and updating the political elite;

6) functions of the political elite.

7. Citizens as individuals:

a) political rights of citizens;

6) forms of political participation of citizens.

8. Citizens as a set of voters (electorate).

Perhaps a different number and (or) other correct wording of paragraphs and subparagraphs of the plan. They can be presented in nominal, interrogative or mixed forms.

The presence of any two of the 1-7 points of the plan in this wording or similar in meaning will reveal the content of this topic in essence.

1) Active political participation of citizens is a condition for the development of civil society and the rule of law.

2) One of the forms of political participation is elections to state authorities and local self-government.

3) The active inclusion of citizens in the political process requires a certain activity of the state, political parties, socio-political movements.

4) A referendum, unlike elections, involves a secret ballot procedure.

5) One of the forms of political participation of citizens is legal education.

Explanation.

Political participation is a kind of political activity. Political participation is the activity of citizens with the aim of influencing the adoption of political decisions and their implementation.

This definition needs some clarification. First, speaking of political participation, we mean the political activity of ordinary (ordinary) citizens, and not of persons with state power and (or) engaged in the performance of their official managerial functions. Political participation does not include the professional activities of people who are part of the representative, executive, judicial, law enforcement structures of power; political participation of professional politicians and officials takes place only when they act as ordinary citizens, for example, participate in the voting procedure. Secondly, political participation is a voluntary activity of citizens; it is not obligatory for them, much less compulsory. For this reason, many forms of activity in Soviet society were not considered political participation by Western Sovietologists (specialists on the USSR and other socialist countries). Thirdly, the political participation of citizens is not “participation for money”: if a person campaigns for a party or participates in its events only because it is paid for, then this activity is not political participation. An alternative to political participation is absenteeism - avoidance of participation in political life due to lack of interest in politics.

Forms of political participation are diverse. The most popular are: mass demonstrations (rallies, demonstrations, strikes, pickets), voting in elections and referendums, participation in the activities of political parties and pressure groups, expressing one's opinion about certain political events or decisions through the media, letters and appeals to authorities state power, orders to deputies, contacts with civil servants, control over the activities of state and municipal authorities, etc. The most common form of political participation is participation in elections. In some countries, the share of participating in national elections reaches 90% (Australia), in most developed democracies it usually ranges from 50 to 80%. Other types of participation cover more than 25% of citizens only in very few cases.

Due to the variety of forms of political participation, it can be classified on various grounds. Political participation can be: legal (participation permitted by law) and illegal (forms of political activity prohibited by law, such as terrorism or protests not permitted by the authorities); individual and collective; permanent (it is characteristic of political activists) and episodic (usually limited to participation in elections); traditional (aimed at preserving the political system and maintaining stability) and innovative (focused on changes and reforms); at the local, regional or highest levels of the political system, etc. Forms of participation differ in their focus (on public goals or the pursuit of private interests), the amount of effort and resources required from participants, the level of conflict with the authorities and the degree to which their pressure, the volume of necessary cooperation, etc. For example, protest activity, as a rule, is very conflicting, can put strong pressure on the authorities and requires some cooperation from the participants; at the same time, contacts with officials are usually non-conflicting, exert little pressure on the authorities, and do not require cooperation.

1) Active political participation of citizens is a condition for the development of civil society and the rule of law - yes, that's right.

2) One of the forms of political participation is elections to state authorities and local self-government - yes, that's right.

3) The active inclusion of citizens in the political process requires a certain activity of the state, political parties, socio-political movements - yes, that's right.

4) A referendum, unlike elections, involves a secret ballot procedure - no, that's not true.

5) One of the forms of political participation of citizens is obtaining a legal education - no, that's not true.

Answer: 123.

Answer: 123

1) The political system of society determines the possibilities for the socio-political activities of citizens and organizations.

2) The composition of the political system of society may include public organizations.

3) The political system regulates the political process.

4) Political scientists distinguish between majoritarian and proportional political systems.

5) Social norms (legal, political, moral, etc.) refer to the institutional (organizational) subsystem of the political system.

Explanation.

The political system is a set of relations regarding participation in political power, a set of norms, institutions and organizations in the aggregate that make up the political self-organization of society. Functions of the political system: managing, mobilizing, integrative (coordination of interests), communicative. Elements of the political system: organizational (state, political parties, socio-political movements, pressure groups), normative (norms, values, customs, traditions), cultural (political culture - knowledge, value orientations, political psychology, methods of practical political activity + ideology ), communicative (communications within the political system).

1) The political system of society determines the possibilities for the socio-political activities of citizens and organizations - yes, that's right.

2) Public organizations can be part of the political system of a society - yes, that's right.

3) The political system regulates the political process - yes, that's right.

4) Political scientists distinguish between majoritarian and proportional political systems - no, wrong.

5) Social norms (legal, political, moral, etc.) refer to the institutional (organizational) subsystem of the political system - no, that's not true.

Answer: 123.

Answer: 123

1) The type of political regime is determined by the nature of socio-political processes, the structure of the ruling elite.

2) Under a democratic regime, personal freedom is recognized only to the extent that it seems appropriate to the government of the country.

3) The political regime is characterized by ways of resolving social and political conflicts.

4) Regimes differ in the political and legal status of the media, the degree of publicity in society.

5) Under a totalitarian regime, the activities of the media are impossible.

Explanation.

Political regime - a way of organizing the political system, which reflects the relationship of power and society, the level of political freedom and the nature of political life in the country. The democratic regime (from the Greek demokratia - democracy) is based on the recognition of the people as the main source of power, on the principles of equality and freedom. The features of democracy are:

Electiveness - there is an election of citizens to public authorities by universal, equal and direct elections.

Separation of powers - power is divided into legislative, executive and judicial branches, independent of each other.

Civil society - citizens can influence the authorities with the help of a developed network of voluntary public organizations.

Equality - everyone has equal civil and political rights and freedoms, as well as guarantees for their protection.

Pluralism - respect for other people's opinions and ideologies, including oppositional ones, prevails, full transparency and freedom of the press from censorship are ensured.

Consent - political and other social relations are aimed at finding a compromise, and not at a violent solution to the problem; All conflicts are resolved by legal means.

Democracy is direct and representative. In a direct democracy, decisions are made directly by all citizens who have the right to vote. Direct democracy was, for example, in Athens, in the Novgorod Republic, where people, gathering in the square, took common decision for every problem. Now direct democracy is implemented, as a rule, in the form of a referendum - a popular vote on draft laws and important issues of national importance. For example, the current constitution Russian Federation was adopted by referendum on December 12, 1993.

In a large area, direct democracy is too difficult to implement. Therefore, state decisions are made by special elected institutions. Such a democracy is called representative, since the elected body (for example, the State Duma) is represented by the people who elected it.

An authoritarian regime (from the Greek autocritas - power) arises when power is concentrated in the hands of an individual or a group of people. Usually authoritarianism is combined with dictatorship. Political opposition is impossible under authoritarianism, but in non-political spheres, for example, in the economy, culture or private life, individual autonomy and relative freedom are preserved.

A totalitarian regime (from lat. totalis - whole, whole) arises when all spheres of society are controlled by the authorities. Power under a totalitarian regime is monopolized (by a party, leader, dictator), a single ideology is obligatory for all citizens. The absence of any dissent is ensured by a powerful apparatus of supervision and control, police repressions, and acts of intimidation. The totalitarian regime forms a non-initiative personality prone to submission.

1) The type of political regime is determined by the nature of socio-political processes, the structure of the ruling elite - yes, that's right.

2) Under a democratic regime, personal freedom is recognized only to the extent that it seems appropriate to the government of the country - no, it is not true.

3) The political regime is characterized by ways of resolving social and political conflicts - yes, that's right.

4) Regimes differ in the political and legal status of the media, the degree of publicity in society - yes, that's right.

5) Under a totalitarian regime, the activities of the media are impossible - no, that's not true.

Answer: 134.

Select the correct judgments about the structure of the political system of society and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) The state is an element of the institutional subsystem of the political system of society.

2) Various political ideologies belong to the communicative subsystem of politics.

3) Regulation of the political process on the basis of various social norms is an important function implemented by the components of the political system that belong to the cultural subsystem.

4) The elements of the institutional subsystem of the political system of society include public organizations.

5) Organization of political dialogue is one of the functions of the communicative subsystem.

Explanation.

The state in a broad sense is identical to the country and the politically organized people living in the given territory. The state in the narrow sense is an organization of supreme power standing above society. Political ideologies, public organizations - an institutional subsystem. Political dialogue is a communicative subsystem.

1) The state is an element of the institutional subsystem of the political system of society - yes, that's right.

2) Various political ideologies belong to the communicative subsystem of politics - no, that's not true.

3) Regulation of the political process on the basis of various social norms is an important function implemented by the components of the political system related to the cultural subsystem - no, it is not true.

4) The elements of the institutional subsystem of the political system of society include public organizations - yes, that's right.

5) The organization of political dialogue is one of the functions of the communicative subsystem - yes, that's right.

Answer: 145.

Below are a number of terms. All of them, with the exception of one, refer to the concept of “subjects of political activity”. Find one term that "falls out" of the general series, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table.

Explanation.

The political process is defined as a dynamic characteristic of the entire political system as a whole, a consistent change in its states, stages of development.

Answer: 3.

Answer: 3

Subject area: Politics. Political participation

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to reveal the essence of the topic "The role of elections in the political process." The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

When analyzing the response, the following are taken into account:

- the correctness of the wording of the points of the plan in terms of their compliance

given topic;

− completeness of reflection of the main content in the plan;

- compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type.

One of the options for the disclosure plan for this topic:

1) Democratic mechanism for making political decisions

2) Electoral rights of citizens:

a) active suffrage;

b) passive suffrage.

3) Principles of democratic suffrage:

a) generality;

b) equality;

c) secrecy of elections;

4) Electoral systems:

a) majoritarian;

b) proportional

5) The role of elections in the political process:

b) public control over the activities of state power;

c) social representation, etc.

6) Representative authorities

7) Elections in non-democratic societies

Perhaps a different number and (or) other correct wording of paragraphs and

sub-items of the plan. They can be presented in nominal, interrogative or mixed forms.

The presence of any two of the 2, 3, 4, 5 points of the plan in this or similar wording will reveal the content of this topic on the merits

Explanation.

One of the options for the disclosure plan for this topic:

1) The concept of political elections, their role in the political process:

a) the formation of representative bodies of power;

Political processes in Russia

Behind last years in Russia such disciplines as political science, sociology, as well as various political doctrines began to actively develop. Various conferences and seminars on political topics are organized, as the society is actively interested in politics and changes in this area.

To date, a wealth of empirical material has been accumulated, which relates to various aspects of the political process. At the same time, scientists have identified a number of problems in the functioning of political processes. Such an analysis became possible on the basis of a comparative study of the policies of several states. The study of this issue allows us to identify gaps in the study of political processes, as well as to propose appropriate ways to solve these problems.

It should be noted that the concept of the political process is used not only by scientists, but also by the subjects of politics, as well as in everyday speech of citizens. Despite the fact that these concepts are associated specifically with politics and the implementation of political activities, in everyday consciousness for a long time this phrase was associated precisely with the Stalinist regime, repressions in Germany, show trials of traitors, and so on. Such a negative experience does not always fully allow citizens to assess the political situation correctly. From this point of view, the development of political culture is necessary.

Figure 1. Political processes in Russia. Author24 - online exchange of student papers

Emerging Policies

Scientists who are currently studying politics are talking about the emergence of new political trends, which so far are only emerging and taking shape. In addition, there is a transformation of many institutions of power that adapt to changing social relations.

One of the new, emerging areas of policy is institutionalism. Special interest in it is expressed by scientists in interdisciplinary research. In particular, this direction is based on understanding the norms of the Constitution and their implementation in practice, taking into account social interaction. Often this direction involves the election of candidates for public authorities and local governments on a territorial basis. This direction leaves a certain imprint on the political views of the population.

Institutionalism as a theory social foundations also acts as one of the directions for the development of political institutions, but in science it has received insufficient attention. Meanwhile, it is precisely this direction that studies the possibility of developing certain institutions in the context of an emerging social paradigm based on the norms of the Constitution. To date, this point of view is assessed as one of the most effective in the political sphere.

The following approach is referred to as behaviorist, in particular, it considers individuals or groups of people as subjects of the political process and the leading vector, uniting their political wills and interests. However, within the framework of this approach, organizational aspects, the structure and functionality of political processes, as well as phenomena that affect social relations are not reflected, which is a significant drawback of this approach. Also, this approach is not able to take into account temporary units of measurement and study the political process as a whole. The phenomena studied in its context only break out of a certain moment and are studied specifically on this moment time.

The next approach is called structural-functional. He analyzes the behavioral aspects of the political process, evaluating, among other things, the environment and the system, the nature and way of interaction of subjects in the field of politics. The focus here is also on the macro aspects of the political process. Proponents of this approach use larger time units to analyze certain political phenomena, which makes it possible to more fully determine the specifics of any direction in the development of political relations. The disadvantages of this approach are the following:

there is an underestimation of the role of subjective factors in the framework of politics,
the behavior of subjects in most often comes down to the definition of their roles.

Remark 1

These approaches undoubtedly have the right to exist, but only their joint use allows you to create a complete picture of the policy in a particular state.

Problems of the political process

The main problems that characterize the political process concern both the sphere of foreign policy and the sphere of domestic policy. In particular, today there is a rather tough foreign policy from many states.

Remark 2

Despite the achievement of certain agreements in this area, not all states have adapted their political system to the vector of international cooperation. And as a vivid example of such a country, Ukraine can be singled out, which today is absolutely not in the mood for a constructive dialogue with other countries. Similar behavior of countries can also be observed in relation to Russia in the form of imposing sanctions against it, terminating diplomatic relations, expelling diplomats, etc.

Concerning internal problems, here you can call various factors and the reasons for their development. In particular, one of the important reasons that suppress people's faith in power is corruption, which actively flourishes in various spheres of society. Only comprehensive measures in all spheres of society can prevent negative phenomena that do not allow the political system to develop in full.

Sociological analysis of individual political phenomena allows you to study the subjects, resources, names used, as well as the conditions for their interaction, which is an important factor in the analysis of many political systems. In addition, certain monitoring requires political changes and political situations, an analysis of their dynamics.

Figure 2. Problems in the political process. Author24 - online exchange of student papers

Conscious, planned actions of group subjects prevail in the political process. Its content, moreover, even the core is the totality (not always a system) of decisions made.

A generalized type of political decision is the development of a policy, usually called a strategy. The analysis of political decisions is an integral aspect of the theory of the political process and, at the same time, a method for studying political systems and regimes. By the type of decisions, the way they are developed, the level of participation of mass subjects, one can judge the essential features of the system.

A political decision is the choice and justification of a specific project of political actions aimed at realizing the common interest of social groups or society as a whole (the state). The adoption of a political decision is also a process, but a private one, included in a more general, in a certain stage of the global process. It consists of a system of actions of a political subject, which includes several stages: a) identification and definition of the problem (task); b) analysis of the conditions and possibilities for its resolution; c) formation of goals and selection of priority ones from them; d) selection of possible alternative courses of action for their implementation in accordance with the principles, values and norms adopted by this subject; e) analysis of alternatives, in terms of possible difficulties in practical implementation and expected consequences; f) selection of the optimal course of action and appropriate means. In the logic of a political decision, a particularly important role is played by the moment of determining the priority goal in a given situation and those political forces that will be able to implement it. The guarantor of the development of an adequate political solution is the methodology of a specific analysis of a specific situation, including: real trends and contradictions in the political process, the balance of power at its current stage, the attitude of the masses, elites and leaders to the actions of various forces, etc.

Political decisions are grouped according to many criteria. In particular: in relation to certain stages of the global political process - decisions related to the functioning of the system, its reform, development; by the level of hierarchical structures of power, decision-makers - decisions of federal, republican or local authorities; by the nature of political subjects - state, party and other decisions; on the object to which the political action is directed - political or social groups, institutions, norms, etc. P.; by the nature of the goals and objectives, the implementation of which decisions are subordinated to - strategic, operational-tactical, general, particular decisions.

The noted and other types of political decisions have some common features that distinguish them from management decisions from other areas of social life.

One of the features of a political decision is related to the need to select many goals and objectives, identify priority ones and establish appropriate (often heterogeneous) criteria for successful implementation. Any program project of the activity of, say, a political party, as a political decision, is always multi-purpose, with the determination of the sequence (depending on the significance) of the implementation of the goals and the correlation of the planned actions with the expected results and their consequences.

Another essential feature of a political decision is that the direct subject of decision-making is a leader or an organization representing large social groups or even the state as a whole. A decision is effective if it has the support of those on behalf of whom it is made.

The specifics of a political decision is associated with the mobilization and concentration of society's resources, their redistribution among various subjects of power. Finally, when working out a political solution, the time factor is of great importance. Both haste and delay in making a decision dooms the subject to failure. "Procrastination is like death." “If you hurry, you will make people laugh” - these aphorisms from political and folk wisdom reflect the truth obtained by historical experience. Fresh in the memory of what happened in the country in the second half of the 80s. developments. The deepening of the crisis situation in the state stimulated the indecision of the former political leadership in making the most important decisions that the time required, the interests of maintaining the unity and integrity of the state. One of these decisions was to be the signing of the Union Treaty, which was thwarted by the delay of its numerous approvals.

The analysis of the process of development and adoption of political decisions is very closely connected with such a problem as the articulation of the interests of large social groups, socially significant strata of the population and direct subjects of political actions. This issue has been given attention, in particular, by Polish political scientists.

The articulation of interests is carried out by representative authorities, political parties, public organizations, administrative state structures - information, public relations and others. The criterion of democracy of the system and its policy is characterized by how diverse these channels are and how wide the possibilities are for using them by various groups of society, by any citizen to express their interests and bring them to the ruling structures.

Free access to the channels of articulation of interests is the principle of a democratic regime. It is realized not only in freedom of speech, in the ability of citizens to join the desired socio-political associations, but in their right to practical participation in the activities of bodies that develop decisions that affect the interests of the public.

Social interests do not always find their expression in political decisions. This situation occurs in the following situations:

a) in conditions of political alienation, when the subject does not have access to the channels of articulation of interests or does not want to use the available channels: does not trust them, ignores them, does not have the relevant experience, feels powerless to represent interests in the political process;

b) in a situation of suppressing the transformation of interests into political demands: blocking some interests of a social group by attributing to it others declared general, state, using imaginary ways to satisfy interests;

c) elimination of interests that can cause a dysfunctional state of the system, or those that cannot be satisfied within its framework.

The articulation of interests is a multifaceted process. It covers the identification and awareness of interests, their generalization (interests are always expressed in a generalized form in politics), and their transformation into political demands. The development, adoption and implementation of political decisions includes the entire process of articulating interests in their contradictory relationship.

There are many pitfalls in the development and implementation of policies that prevent the articulation of interests and their harmonization. In particular, in the form of old dogmas and newly formed, so to speak, "democratic" stereotypes. Among the first should be attributed the understanding of public interests only as state and the only significant ones, and other interests - only as manifestations of general, secondary, insignificant for a working person. Hence the neglect of individual, group and other specific interests, or even blocking them in the name of the "common good", the state interest. Moreover, under the guise of a common good, the baggage of the authoritarian political leadership often includes the interests of departments and the bureaucratic apparatus.

As an antipode to the marked stereotype, in recent years, group and national-territorial egoism has formed in the country, which has grown on the basis of opposing collective-group, regional interests to public, including national ones. It finds its most obvious expression in separatist tendencies.

The historical experience of political development speaks of the priority of democratic methods of making political decisions. The experience of our country's development also teaches this. Nevertheless, the current process of democratization testifies to its complexity and inconsistency.

Democracy cannot be idealized. All decision rules are relative (Y. Shapiro). The will of the majority does not yet rule out dictatorship. The paradox of freedom is a concept known since the time of Plato. Man is free, and he can challenge the laws, and in the end, freedom itself, standing up for the domination of a tyrant.

According to the prominent French socialist Rocard, democracy has the disadvantage that it boils down to the competition of politicians, their personal qualities, which do not always mean the ability to manage effectively.

The foregoing makes it possible to agree with the formulation of the question of the “traps” of democratic decision-making that is encountered in the literature. Let's note some of them.

Democratic discussion in the absence of appropriate awareness of its participants does not provide a rational search for ways to solve political problems. The choice can be justified only externally. The negative practice of adopting by a majority of votes many erroneous, even harmful, decisions for the country is widely known.

Confusion before the surging problems also paralyzes the rational choice of goals and means of political solution. In the process of democratic discussion in such a situation, emotional motives for choosing options for political action dominate.

On the wave of democracy, a break in freedom of opinion, action and responsibility for the consequences is possible; delegation of responsibility (“top-down” and “bottom-up”), understandable as a desire to avoid responsibility or as philistine trust, say, in the authorities or the wisdom of the people (“whatever sovereignty you want”, “choose any way of governance yourself”, etc. .).

Democracy coexists with populism, with a focus on the external attractiveness of programs, the apparent ease of solving problems, the quick and painless achievement of success, etc. It is possible to ignore the authority of knowledge, experience (stereotype: everyone's opinion is significant). The exaggeration of denial, the danger of destruction, the fascination with extremes is quite real.

Behind any political decision is some important social problem, and behind the problem is a socio-political contradiction or even conflict. The content of the political process is saturated with both.

Contradictions and conflicts in society have been and remain the source and driving force of any political processes, in whatever form they take.

It is legitimate to consider a political decision as a central element of control, consisting in determining the goal and mechanisms (means) for its implementation. This is a kind of decision adopted by the subject of political action, aimed at the implementation of political measures in order to achieve a certain result.

A political solution is a process that begins with the appearance of a political problem and ends with its resolution, removal. Of course, if effective measures are taken.

A political decision is also a way of realizing the interests of any participants in political events. The political life of society is not limited to relationships between rulers and subordinates. It is the interaction of the interests of various participants in political events pursuing their goals. Their implementation is possible through a number of political measures, actions and, in particular, through political decisions.

A political decision is also a means of resolving conflicting political situations. Conflict in the political life of society is an inevitable phenomenon. The conflict is resolved through not one, but as a rule, a whole series of political decisions, each of which should be a step of political wisdom, attentiveness, caution, consent, because we are talking about the docking of opposing and often antagonistic interests.

A political decision is also a conscious choice by the subject of activity of a course of action from among many possible ones. This side of a political decision is directly related to such conditions for its adoption as freedom and responsibility: the higher the status of the decision-maker in the pyramid of participants in political events, the higher the degree of his freedom in choosing options for action, but at the same time, the higher the level of his social responsibility for their chosen option.

From the foregoing, we can conclude that a political decision is at the same time the coordination of the goals and means of achieving them by one subject of political activity, with the goals and means established by another subject.

The political decision contains a number of requirements:

* The expediency of making a decision. Why is the decision being made? for what purpose? for what? The questions are far from rhetorical. Whether a politician wants to show himself, to show himself in the political process, or he is pushing a solution in the interests of a very narrow group of people, or a problem of broad social significance is being solved - all this should be clarified before starting work on a political solution.
* Timeliness of solution development. Any political action, especially a political decision, must take place on time; neither earlier nor later. Lenin’s famous statement can be considered a classic example of compliance with this requirement: “yesterday it was early, tomorrow it will be late, power should be taken today.”
* Consistency in taking into account factors significant for decision making. The comprehensiveness and completeness of the analysis and assessment of all data on the situation that should be changed by a political decision, the comprehensiveness and completeness of the analysis and assessment of all the consequences of the political decision being made - this is modern style activities of a serious politician.
* Compliance of the decision made with the legal norms and laws in force in society. Political decisions - especially of a radical nature - are made and implemented against the background of already established social relations, enshrined in a system of normative acts adopted in society. It is very important that again decisions taken did not go beyond this system.
* Subordination of the process of making and implementing decisions to action general principles human activity - such as scientific, reality, concreteness, constructiveness, alternativeness, optimality, controllability.

In a society with a sufficiently high level of political culture, the decisions made basically correspond to the above basic requirements and therefore their implementation does not violate the integrity and stability of the political system of society as a whole. Where these requirements are not taken into account, or are not fully taken into account, political decisions often lead to serious political and economic crises.

Decision making steps:

* knowledge of the situation and the characteristics of the subjects of decision-making;
* development of the adoption procedure;
* understanding the decision-making process as a set of specific techniques, methods, procedures, “techniques” that assumes an organizational context;
* perception of the decision;
* anticipation of the possible consequences of the decision.

Russian political science has developed its own view on the stages of the process of making a political decision, where the following phases are distinguished:

1. Accumulation of initial data on the problem situation in society.
2. Analysis of the original and all additional data.
3. Making a decision.
4. Implementation of the political decision.

Each of these phases of the decision-making process is quite complex in content, requires a long time for the qualitative study of its elements in a certain sequence. Serious efforts require the first phases related to information. Usefulness, completeness, reliability, novelty, value are the qualities that information must meet in order to fulfill the purpose of a decision source.

Algorithm for making a political decision. Among other elements of the political decision-making process, the third phase - the adoption phase is not only the most responsible, but also the most subjectively saturated. It is here that the collected and objectively analyzed data turn into the basis of the volitional actions of the subject of politics.

1. Clarification of the object of the political decision. Here the answer is given - which of the participants in political events wants changes, which of them needs the decision to be made. This takes into account the allies of such a participant and those who are indirectly interested in making a decision, as well as those whose interests will be infringed. Thus, the subject of politics receives complete clarity - which of the participants in political events will support the decision being made and who will resist it.
2. Unsatisfied interests. Attention is focused on finding out what the participants in political events want from the political decision being made. The whole range of political interests is taken into account, and especially those that are not satisfied now, and their satisfaction is expected to be made by the forthcoming decision. The subject of politics determines the nature, content, radicalness of the future decision, the degree of satisfaction of the interests of the majority of participants in political events, and hence the degree of resolution of the problem that caused the need to make a decision.
3. Specific disadvantages. What exactly is missing, what specifically needs to be changed in order to satisfy the interests of the "offended" participants in political events - this is the question that determines the purposefulness of the future decision. Finding out the “weak” link in the political structure, the political system, which impedes the satisfaction of certain political interests, allows the subject of politics to clearly indicate the direction of the efforts of the political decision being made - which shortcoming must be eliminated without fail.
4. The ultimate goal of the decision being made. Any political action must be expedient. However, the final goal is not always manifested in the decision itself. The subject of policy is obliged to form the goal of the future decision based on many criteria. According to the level of impact on the object, the goal can be set as strategic, tactical, operational; by the time of action, it can be long-term, medium-term and short-term; the goal may differ in scale and levels of the political hierarchical structure, in the priority of the interests satisfied, in the degree of obligation for various participants in political events. In any case, the subject of politics, when making a decision, is obliged to set himself a clear and necessarily achievable goal.
5. Means of achieving the goal. The subject of politics, when determining a set of means for realizing his goals, will certainly face the task of coordinating and implementing them with the goals and means of other participants in political events.
6. The main problem to be solved. Here the subject of politics concentrates his efforts on overcoming the main objective contradiction of the problem facing him. This contradiction exists, it is revealed in the analysis of the situation and has ways of resolving.
7. Choice of alternatives. There are many paths that lead to the achievement of any goal. The main task of the decision maker is to take into consideration as many ways as possible to implement this decision. The degree of freedom of the subject in the correct definition depends on this. the best option; professionally transform possible ways to achieve the goal, because each option has a set of positive properties, but no less - negative ones, therefore, a competent comparison of all options is necessary; make an extremely reasonable choice of the really best option for implementing the decision being made.
8. Making a decision. The political decision taken must be properly documented. But in this paragraph of the algorithm, we are not talking about the documentary form of the solution, this is a technical detail. We will talk about the need for the subject of politics to formalize his decision according to the principle called “decision tree”. The fact is that the achievement of the desired result in the “execution” phase can occur in three main directions (branches of the “decision tree”).

The productive branch is not the fastest, not the most economical, but one hundred percent provides the desired result. The optimal branch provides the result in this particular situation with possible reservations, retreats, compromises, temporary gains. Finally, a dead-end branch is also possible, the movement along which can be the result of serious errors (intentional and unintentional) at different stages of the decision-making process. Therefore, the decision of the politician must be formalized taking into account the requirements of the “decision tree” principle. Thus, the considered algorithm for making a political decision gives the subject of politics the opportunity to ensure a sufficiently high scientific level of development - and hence the achievement - of the desired political result.