It is not easy to find an adult who has never heard the catchphrase "Movement is life" in his life.


There is another formulation of this statement, which sounds somewhat different: "Life is movement." The authorship of this aphorism is usually attributed to Aristotle, the ancient Greek scientist and thinker, who is considered the founder of all "Western" philosophy and science.

Today it is difficult to say with complete certainty whether the great ancient Greek philosopher really ever uttered such a phrase, and how exactly it sounded in those distant times, but, looking at things with an open mind, it should be recognized that the above definition of movement is, although sonorous, but quite vague and metaphorical. Let's try to figure out what constitutes a movement from a scientific point of view.

The concept of motion in physics

Physics gives the concept "motion" quite specific and unambiguous definition. The branch of physics that studies the motion of material bodies and the interaction between them is called mechanics.

The section of mechanics that studies and describes the properties of motion without taking into account its specific causes is called kinematics. From the point of view of mechanics and kinematics, movement is a change in the position of a physical body relative to other physical bodies that occurs over time.

What is Brownian motion?

The tasks of physics include the observation and study of any manifestations of motion that occur or could occur in nature.

One of the types of motion is the so-called Brownian motion, known to most readers of this article from a school physics course. For those who, for some reason, were not present during the study of this topic or had time to thoroughly forget it, let us explain: Brownian motion is called the random movement of the smallest particles of matter.


Brownian motion occurs wherever there is any matter whose temperature exceeds absolute zero. Absolute zero is the temperature at which the Brownian motion of particles of matter should stop. According to the Celsius scale, which we are used to using in everyday life to determine the temperature of air and water, the temperature of absolute zero is 273.15 ° C with a minus sign.

Scientists have not yet been able to create conditions that cause such a state of matter, moreover, there is an opinion that absolute zero is a purely theoretical assumption, but in practice it is unattainable, since it is impossible to completely stop the oscillations of matter particles.

Movement in terms of biology

Since biology is closely related to physics and in a broad sense is completely inseparable from it, in this article we will consider the movement also from the point of view of biology. In biology, movement is considered as one of the manifestations of the vital activity of an organism. From this point of view, movement is the result of the interaction of forces external to a single organism with the internal forces of the organism itself. In other words, external stimuli cause a certain reaction of the body, which manifests itself in movement.

It should be noted that although the formulations of the concept of "motion", adopted in physics and biology, are somewhat different from each other, in their essence they do not enter into the slightest contradiction, being simply different definitions of the same scientific concept.


Thus, we are convinced that the catchphrase, which was discussed at the beginning of this article, is quite consistent with the definition of motion from the point of view of physics, so we can only repeat the common truth once again: motion is life, and life is motion .

MOVEMENTS (in biology)- one of the manifestations of vital activity, providing the possibility of active interaction of the constituent parts of the body and the whole organism with the environment.

D. are presented in various forms of interaction of the organism with the environment, interrelated processes occurring in the internal environment at the cellular, tissue, organ, and system levels.

So, smooth muscles provide tone and wave-like contractions of blood vessels, stomach, intestines, uterus, etc. Liquids in the body (transport of blood and lymph through the vessels, movement of interstitial fluid) ensures the processes of digestion and absorption, the optimal level of metabolism.

The activity of all these mechanisms is aimed at maintaining the homeostasis of the internal environment of the body (see Homeostasis) and stability during the deployment of processes occurring in organs and systems.

The emergence of D.'s physiology as a section of general physiology that studies the mechanisms of activity of skeletal muscles, as a result of which D.'s are produced, is associated with the appearance in the 19th century. various ways of its registration with the help of sensors (see) and photography [E. Marey, Muybridge (E. Muybridge)]. The beginning fiziol, D.'s researches of the person is the detailed studying of walking conducted by E. Weber and V. Weber (W. Weber). The development of D.'s physiology was significantly influenced by the discovery of the effect of electrical stimulation of various parts of the cerebral cortex [Fritsch and Hitzig (G. Fritsch, E. Hitzig)], the possibility of D.'s implementation by animals deprived of hemispheres. Of greater importance was the identification of postural reflexes by C. Sherrington, the study of the reflex mechanisms of regulation of posture and balance, carried out by R. Magnus. N.A. Bernshtein’s ideas about the coordination of D. and R. Granit’s work on the central regulation of proprioceptive apparatuses had a serious impact on the understanding of the physiology of D..

D., characteristic of most animals and humans, are the result of contraction of the skeletal muscles that ensure the maintenance of the posture (see), the movement of links or the entire body in space. The function of vision, facial expressions, and speech are provided by specific forms of D. When classifying D., the nature of the achieved position of body parts (for example, flexion, extension, etc.), the functional values ​​of D. (For example, approximate, protective, etc.) or their mechanical properties (eg, rotational, ballistic, etc.).

In modern physiology, great importance has been attached to the activity factor in the behavior of not only humans, but also animals. In humans, D. are continuously controlled by all brain activity aimed at the performance of a particular task and modeled in successive muscle contractions. This form of activity is called voluntary, or conscious, D., and the coordinated activity of various muscle groups in the implementation of a muscle skill is called D. Coordination of movements is important for the manifestation of dexterity, strength, speed, and endurance of a person and their relationship.

Motor reactions are simple - unconditioned reflex reactions to pain, light, temperature and other stimuli, and complex - a series of sequential movements aimed at solving a specific motor task (see Motor Reactions). An example of the latter can be locomotion, i.e., movements of the musculoskeletal system that ensures the movement of a person in space (for example, running, walking, etc.).

The process of formation and regulation of motor reactions is associated with both peripheral and central physiological mechanisms.

The reticular formation of the brain stem can carry out both a diffuse activating and inhibitory effect, and a differentiated control over motor activity. These influences along the ascending and descending pathways of the reticular formation (see) enter both the motor area of ​​the cerebral cortex and the motor centers of the spinal cord.

An important role in the formation and implementation of a motor skill is played by analyzers (see). The proprioceptive analyzer provides the dynamics and interconnection of muscle contractions. He participates in the spatial and temporal organization of the motor act (see Proprioceptors). The vestibular analyzer (see) interacts with the motor analyzer in the formation and implementation of a motor skill, with a change in the position of the body in space. The auditory analyzer (see) provides the rhythmic organization of muscle contractions, and the visual analyzer (see) provides the spatial dynamics of muscle activity. All types of D., characteristic of a living organism and determining its vital activity, proceed in the unity and struggle of opposing processes of spending and restoring the bioenergetic and structural potentials of the organism. IP Pavlov was the first to point out that the process of inhibition contributes to the restoration of the expended irritable substance.

In living organisms, the recovery process is associated in the vast majority of cases with the mechanisms of self-regulation at the systemic, organ, tissue and cellular levels (see Self-regulation of physiological functions). Expenditure is a natural stimulant of recovery and, therefore, functional overload is an important means of managing recovery processes.

There are several types of recovery: periodic, associated with biorhythms in the human and animal body; at the same time, the interaction of endogenous and exogenous rhythms (change of day and night, seasons, etc.) has a profound effect on this process (see Biological rhythms); pre-working, arising by the mechanism of a conditioned reflex during the pre-launch state and characterizing “readiness for action”, according to F. A. Bainbridge, or “preventive readiness”, according to A. A. Ukhtomsky; current - proceeds during work due to regulatory coordination processes and adaptive-trophic influences of c. n. from.; post-work associated with the development of inhibitory processes in c. n. from. and elimination of changes in the chemistry of the internal environment of the body that have arisen during work; in the course of post-work recovery, a constructive period is formed, during which there is an accumulation of structural and bioenergetic resources - the so-called. over recovery.

Characteristics of the stability and reliability of D. with varying degrees of functional activity of the organism, as well as adaptive and compensatory systems, is an important basis for the life of the organism as a whole.

Reliability is determined by a number of features in the structural and functional hierarchy of D.'s regulation systems at all levels.

Akinez

The term "akinesis" is used to refer to various manifestations of immobility in the motor sphere in humans and animals. Less pronounced degrees of immobility are referred to as hypokinesia (see). In medical practice, akinesia refers to conditions that are manifested by a decrease in D.'s dynamics as a whole, a general drop in the level of motor functions and motor initiative.

The picture of an akinesis is most typical at an akinetic and rigid form of parkinsonism (see). In such cases, the patient lies motionless or sits in bed, his motor skills are extremely limited, he experiences a state of general stiffness, arbitrary D. are slowed down, prone to freezing; the face is inexpressive, mask-like. Motor delay changes the handwriting of the patient; he writes slowly in small handwriting (micrography).

In the origin of akinesia, apparently, a peculiar increase in the tone of the muscles of the body and limbs and the development of rigidity in them, i.e., plastic hypertension, matters. It differs from pyramidal spasticity in that it occurs and persists in all phases of muscle stretching.

Akinesis develops with lesions of the deep structures of the brain (substance black, reticular formation of the brain stem, pale ball, frontal-subcortical connections), which control extrapyramidal motor activity and muscle tone. Elektrofiziol, researches point to considerable lengthening of time of carrying out excitations from a cerebral cortex on segmental devices of a spinal cord.

It has been established that the low level of functional activity of the deep regions of the brain in akinesis is due not only to organic changes in these structures, but also to a violation of their biochemical processes. There is a parallelism between the severity of akinesis and a drop in the concentration of dopamine in the striatal formations and the substantia nigra of the brain stem. Dopamine deficiency reduces the activity of dopaminergic neurons in the subcortical nodes and leads to a "disorder" of motor programs.

In patients with akinesis under the influence of various stressful conditions, motor crises may occur, which are collectively called "paradoxical kinesia"; the immobilized patient is disinhibited, becomes active, is able to perform D., complex in construction (running, walking, games, etc.), but then again falls into a state of akinesis. Attacks of paradoxical kinesia should be considered as periodic activation of cortical motor zones with suppression of the pathological dominant.

A special form of the disease is the so-called. akinetic mutism. It can occur with damage to the oral parts of the brain stem and reticular formation, the limbicoreticular complex; proceeds subacutely or chronically. The patient is in a state of akinetic mutism in the phase of inhibition, lies motionless in bed, does not follow commands, there are no emotions, his speech is whispered, barely audible. Small eye movements are sometimes noted. The EEG shows a significant depression of the alpha rhythm. The state of global inhibition is sometimes interrupted by convulsive crises and hyperkinesis (see Myoclonus, Torsion dystonia, etc.).

The lethal outcome in these conditions may be due to a violation of vital functions and the development of respiratory and cardiovascular insufficiency.

The state of immobility can also be accompanied by other diseases of the nervous system, for example, in patients with neurosis as a result of fixation of painful conditions and obsessions in the motor sphere, phobias, etc. Hysterical manifestations of immobility are called the "symptom of imaginary death" by analogy with the freezing of animals in response to a life-threatening situation. Significant inhibition of motor reactions often complements the picture of psychosis (schizophrenia, manic-depressive psychosis, senile psychosis).

Akinesia can develop as a result of intoxication of the subcortical nodes with prolonged use of neuroleptics (chlorpromazine, reserpine, stellazin, etc.) - the so-called. akinetic form of chlorpromazine parkinsonism, reserpine parkinsonism, etc.

Akinesia algera- painful immobility. There are no movements due to significant pain, although there are no noticeable signs of organic damage; this may be associated with diffuse muscle diseases (eg, myositis, dermatomyositis, etc.). Patients do not leave the bed for months. All cases of an akinesia of such form demand careful klin. - fiziol, the analysis.

D.'s coordination disorders in the clinic are usually understood as such states of motor activity that are characterized by a mismatch in the work of muscles - synergists (Fig. 1), agonists and antagonists, a violation of the dynamic stabilization of D. and their untimely implementation.

The leading symptoms of D.'s lack of coordination (discoordination) are ataxia, dyssynergia, dysmetria (see Ataxia, Cerebellum).

Disorders of D.'s coordination are caused by various organic processes in c. n. pp.: tumors, abscesses, encephalitis, arachnoiditis, demyelination, hemorrhage, ischemia, degeneration, etc. Damage to the cerebellar structures leads to impaired support reflexes, decreased muscle tone and the appearance of static ataxia. The patient walks with his legs wide apart, staggers when walking from side to side (“drunk gait”), balances like a man walking on a tightrope. During walking, there is a picture of asynergy (Fig. 2) - there is no normal combined flexion of the legs in the hip, knee and ankle joints, the legs move in front of the body - trunk ataxia, etc. Maintaining the vertical posture of the patient is impossible due to the difficulty of maintaining balance, there is a tendency to torso vibrations and falling - the so-called. Romberg's symptom (see Romberg's symptom).

Violations of the functions of the cerebellar hemispheres entail the appearance of dynamic discoordination: each D. of the patient becomes inconsistent, loose, and sweeping. Dynamic ataxia manifests itself on the affected side of the cerebellum. The patient cannot outline the space in the form of a circle with his hand (a broken, zigzag line appears). In the heel-knee test, the leg, stepwise swaying, touches not the knee, but the lower leg of the other leg. The index finger fails to accurately hit the tip of the nose, D. become disproportionate, swings, sweeping appear, intentional tremor joins (finger-nose test - Fig. 3).

The lack of stability in D. affects the patient's handwriting: the line becomes disproportionate, the letters are uneven, large.

As a result of the close connection of the cerebellum with the cortex (fronto-bridge-cerebellar pathway and other pathways), in some cases there is a tendency for regression of cerebellar disorders due to cortical functions. Static and dynamic ataxia often appear when the brain stem is damaged, where a number of centers responsible for the postural tone and coordination of the brain are located (inferior olive, reticular formation, cerebellar peduncles, etc.). Such disorders with the presence of muscular hypotension are most pronounced in lesions in the lateral parts of the pons and medulla oblongata. The participation of the red nucleus, the superior cerebellar peduncle is manifested by trembling, taxia, increased postural reflexes and the support reaction on the side opposite to the lesion. With cortical disorders, coordination disorders also occur on the heterolateral side. Disturbances of coordination at patol, the processes affecting frontal and temporal departments of a brain are most significant. Phenomena of D.'s discoordination accompany spinal processes and occur when afferentation from the proprioceptors of the muscles and joints to the cerebellum along the posterior cords is disturbed. The patient's gait becomes unsteady and shaky. Hypotension of the muscles leads to hyperextension of the joints. When visual control is turned off (in the dark and with closed eyes), ataxia increases sharply (taxus of the spinal cord, Friedreich's disease).

Mechanisms of deafferentation (see) underlie ataxias with multiple lesions of peripheral nerves - polyradiculoneuritis (see Polyneuritis), in which the conduction of sensitive signals to the cerebellum is blocked. Muscle tone decreases, gait and D. become uncertain and shaky (peripheral tabes, alcoholic pseudo-tabes). Such ataxia is accompanied by signs of neuromuscular damage - pain, sensitivity disorders, decreased proprioceptive reflexes, etc.

Adiadochokinesis

In a healthy person, coordination mechanisms ensure the implementation of successive opposite D. This normal function is associated with reciprocal innervation, which prepares a change in phase reactions in the agonist-antagonist system.

When the cerebellum is damaged (tumors, multiple sclerosis, dystrophic processes, hemorrhages, etc.), the patient becomes unable to carry out rhythmic, opposite in sign D. at a fast pace, - the so-called. adiadochokinesis (a type of cerebellar asynergy). Adiadochokinesis is detected with the help of various wedges, samples, which are based on the change of simple D at a fast pace. In particular, the patient, at the request of the doctor, performs fast (or with an increase in pace) pronation and supination of the hands (synchronously). With adiadochokinesis, the change of such D. is difficult, slowed down, the rhythm of D. is disturbed, and their disproportion is noted. Adiadochokinesis is found on the affected side of the cerebellum. The presence of a cerebellar lesion also confirms the combination of adiadochokinesis with other symptoms of cerebellar discoordination.

Grotesque manifestations of coordination disorders in a certain combination - disorders of standing and walking with the complete safety of other systems and functions (see Astasia-abasia) - are interpreted in the clinic as manifestations of motor neurosis (hysteria).

Movement in the elderly and senile age. Changes in D. are characteristic of an elderly and old person. There is a slowdown in the pace, a violation of rhythm and accuracy, a decrease in the amplitude and plasticity of D. Muscle rigidity increases, a slight tremor of the hands and head appears (see Trembling), the possibility of simultaneously performing several D. is limited, it is difficult to perform thin D., handwriting changes. The mechanism of these shifts is largely associated with the insufficiency of the extrapyramidal system.

EMG data (increase in reciprocity and adequacy coefficients, fuzzy separation of “packages” of biocurrents from currentless areas, changes in resting EMG) indicate changes in the central coordination mechanisms of D.

Age-related changes in static and dynamic coordination of movements

Age-related changes in the static and dynamic coordination of D. have a complex mechanism and can be understood by taking into account the functional and structural changes that occur in the cortical section of the motor analyzer, the cerebellum, and subcortical-stem formations. Peripheral mechanisms are also involved in the violation of locomotor coordination. Age-related changes in the muscular and ligamentous-articular apparatus lead not only to D.'s restriction, but also to a weakening of tendon reflexes, which are important in the formation of D. plasticity. By old age, the latent period of tendon reflexes increases due to an increase in the central time of the reflex and a slowdown in the conduction of excitation motor nerves and neuromuscular junctions.

In the elderly and senile age, the formation of new motor skills is difficult, the structure of the ergographic curve of voluntary muscle activity changes (see Ergography), which is determined by a violation of the dynamics of nervous processes - a weakening of the inhibition process and the inertness of the excitatory process.

Bibliography: Alexander R. Biomechanics, trans. from English, M., 1970, bibliography; Anokhin P.K. Internal inhibition as a problem of physiology, M., 1958; it, Biology and neurophysiology of a conditioned reflex, M., 1968, bibliogr.; Arshavsky IA Physiological mechanisms of some basic patterns of ontogenesis, Usp. fiziol, sciences, t. 2, no. 4, p. 100, 1971, bibliography; Bernstein N. A. On the construction of movements, M., 1947; about N e, Essays on physiology of movements and physiology of activity, M., 1966, bibliogr.; Granit R. Fundamentals of regulation of movements, trans. from English, M., 1973, bibliography; Luria A. R. Higher nervous functions of a person, M., 1969; Principles of System Organizations of Functions, ed. P. K. Anokhin, p. 5, Moscow, 1973; Development of the contractile function of the muscles of the motor apparatus, ed. L. G. Magazanika and G. A. Nasledova, L., 1974; Physiological problems of detraining, ed. Edited by A. V. Korobkova. Moscow, 1970. Physiology of movements, ed.V. S. Gurfinkel, L., 1975; X and y N d R. Behavior of animals, the lane with English. from English, M., 1975; Chauvin R. Animal behavior, trans. from French, Moscow, 1972.

Pathology- Wartenberg R. Diagnostic tests in neurology, trans. from English, M., 1961; Milner P. Physiological psychology, trans. from English, M., 1973; Multi-volume guide to neurology, ed. G. N. Davidenkova, vol. 2, p. 110, Moscow, 1962; Petelin L. S. Extrapyramidal hyperkinesis, M., 1970; Fudel-Osipova S. I. Aging of the neuromuscular system, Kyiv, 1968, bibliogr.

A. V. Korobkov; L. S. Petelin (neur.), V. A. Polyantsev (system analysis), V. V. Smolyaninov (biomechanical foundations of D.), S. A. Tanin (geront.).

Cilia with cilia The infusoria-shoe swims quickly, deftly acting with cilia that cover its body. Raking them like oars, she can move. At room temperature, the cilia make up to 30 strokes per second, during which time the shoe covers a distance of 25 mm, that is, 1015 times the length of its body.

Flagella flagella Many protozoan animals, as well as some bacteria, unicellular algae have another organ of movement called flagella. The movements of the flagellum of a long, elongated formation are quite complex. It works like a propeller. Making rotational movements, it seems to screw the body of the animal into the water and pull it along.

Microtubules Microtubules Microtubules are intracellular protein structures that make up the cytoskeleton. Microtubules are hollow cylinders with a diameter of 25 nm. Their length can be from a few micrometers to probably a few millimeters in the axons of nerve cells. Microtubules are polar: at one end, self-assembly of the microtubule occurs, at the other end, disassembly.

Smooth muscle tissue Smooth muscle tissue consists of spindle-shaped cells up to 0.1 mm long, in the cytoplasm of which there is one nucleus and myofibrils stretching from one end of the cell to the other. This tissue is involved in the formation of the walls of tubular internal organs and vessels.

Movement of the worm The movements of the worm begin with the contraction of the circular muscles at the anterior end of the body. These contractions capture the segments, passing in a wave through the entire body. The bristles are dense outgrowths on the ventral side of the body of the worm protrude. The body becomes thicker, and the worm, resting the bristles of its posterior end on the soil, pushes the anterior end of the body forward. Then the longitudinal muscles contract, and the wave of contractions again runs through the entire body. Relying on the bristles of the anterior end, the worm pulls up the posterior part of the body.

Wings Wings are the organs of flight common to most insects and all birds. Plumage is the feather cover of birds. When flying, it provides a streamlined body shape. Usually replaced annually by molting. The color of the plumage is due to pigments and features of the structure of the pen. bird wing structure bird wing structure bird wing structure bird wing structure

Birds The best flyers are birds. The large feathers of their forelimbs form the most perfect aircraft. In addition to the wing, the bird has a number of other adaptations for flight. This is a streamlined body shape, a light skeleton, well-developed flight muscles, air sacs that reduce body weight and provide a better supply of oxygen to the lungs during flight.

Legs legs Most vertebrates and arthropods rely on the limbs of the legs. Insects have three pairs of them, and the problem of stability is not faced by them. In reptiles, such as a crocodile, two pairs of legs are located on the sides of the body so that the thigh is parallel to the ground and perpendicular to the lower leg. In mammals, the thigh and lower leg form one line perpendicular to the ground. This arrangement of the legs allows them to move quickly. Ground-air environment

Arachnids Arachnids have four pairs of walking limbs. chelicerae of the pedipalps The first pair of limbs of their cephalothorax is transformed into chelicerae - tools for crushing and crushing food, the second - into pedipalps, which serve to capture and hold the victim.

Types of feet of plantigrade digitigrade ungulates Among walking mammals, depending on how they lean on the foot, there are plantigrades, leaning on the entire foot when walking (this is how a person, a bear walk), digitigrade, leaning on fingers when walking and running, which significantly increases speed their runs (this is how cats, dogs move), and ungulates that run on the tips of one or two fingers, they run the fastest (horses, deer, roe deer).

Movement of plants Plants are also capable of movement, but, unlike animals, they do not move the whole organism, but only its individual organs or parts thereof. Nastia - movements of individual plant organs. The flowers of many plants close at night or before rain. For example, pea leaves, beans. Tropisms - growth movements in response to irritation (geotropism, phototropism).

Tropisms Plant responses to various unilateral effects of environmental stimuli (light, gravity, chemicals, etc.) consist in directed growth and contraction movements (bends) of plant organs, leading to a change in its orientation in space.

Many movements are carried out due to the work of the cilia of the integumentary epithelium. In most multicellular animals, they are carried out with the help of special organs, the structure of which is peculiar in different animals and depends on the type of their locomotion and environmental conditions (ground, water, air). But even in these cases, the movement of the organism and its parts is the result of a few types of cellular mobility.

For some animals (for example, hydroid polyps) and many plants, growth movements are characteristic.

Forms of cell mobility

• Pseudopodia (pseudopodia) provide amoeboid movement (slow flow of cytoplasm associated with a change in the shape of the cell)
• Cilia and flagella provide ciliary and flagellar movement
• Myocytes (muscle tissue cells) provide muscle contraction

In addition to these basic forms, there are others, less studied (sliding movement of gregarines, myxobacteria and filamentous cyanobacteria, contraction of spasmonemas of suvoi, etc.).

The motor apparatus and organs of locomotion of multicellular animals

• Special appendages of the body, with the help of which animals cling to the irregularities of the substrate (setae, scales, scutes) or attach to it (suckers).
• Limbs representing a system of levers set in motion by muscle contractions (the most common design).

Organs can be used by organisms that have freedom of movement. In the absence of such (in attached aquatic animals - sponges, corals, etc., leading a fixed lifestyle), cilia and flagella are used to set in motion their environment, which supplies them with food and oxygen.

Purposeful movements are possible only with the coordinated work of a significant number of muscles or cilia, the coordination of which, as a rule, is carried out by the nervous system.

Classification

Along the paths of movement (movement)

• On the substrate, that is, on a solid or liquid support (walking, running, jumping, crawling, sliding)
• Free in the water - swimming
• Free in the air - flying, gliding, hovering
• In the substrate (drilling)

By activity

passive

In water and air, movement can be passive:

• moving long distances, some spiders release cobwebs and are carried away by air currents.
• soaring observed in birds using air currents
• Some aquatic animals have devices that maintain their body in a suspended state (vacuoles in the outer layer of radiolarian protoplasm, air bubbles in siphonophore colonies, etc.).

Active

• In the water is carried out:
  • using specialized rowing devices (from hairs and flagella to modified limbs of water turtles, birds, pinnipeds)
  • bendings of the whole body (most fish, tailed amphibians, etc.)
  • in a jet way - by pushing water out of the body cavities (jellyfish, cephalopods, etc.).
• In the air - flying - is characteristic of most insects, birds and some mammals (bats). Movement by air so-called. flying fish, frogs, mammals (flying squirrels, etc.) - not flying, but an elongated gliding jump, carried out with the help of such supporting devices as elongated pectoral fins, interdigital membranes of the legs, skin folds, etc.

Evolution

In the course of evolution, the types of movement of animals became more complicated. The emergence of a rigid skeleton and striated muscles was one of the important stages of evolution. As a result, the structure of the nervous system became more complex, a variety of movements appeared, and the vital possibilities of organisms expanded.

human movements

They are the most important way of its interaction with the environment and active influence on it.

They are of great variety:

• Movements associated with vegetative functions
• locomotion
• labor
• household
• sports
• associated with speech and writing.

"... all external manifestations of brain activity can really be reduced to muscle movement" I. M. Sechenov

.

Study of

There are two directions in the study of the movement of animals and humans:

• identification of biomechanical characteristics of the musculoskeletal system, kinematic and dynamic description of natural movements
• neurophysiological - elucidation of the patterns of control of the nervous system by movement

Muscles that carry out movement are reflexively controlled by impulses from the central nervous system.

The basic locomotor movements, being inherited (certainly reflex), develop in the course of individual development and as a result of constant exercises. Mastering new movements is a complex process of forming new conditioned reflex connections and strengthening them. With multiple repetitions, voluntary movements are performed more consistently, more economically and gradually become automated. The most important role in the regulation of movement belongs to the signals entering the nervous system from the proprioceptors located in the muscles, tendons and joints, reporting the direction, magnitude and speed of the movement, activating reflex arcs in different parts of the nervous system, the interaction of which ensures movement coordination.

Movements in plants

Passive (hygroscopic)

Associated with a change in the water content in the colloids that make up the cell membrane.

They play an important role for flowering plants in the distribution of seeds and fruits.

• At the Jericho rose growing in the desert of Arabia, the branches are folded in dry air, and in damp air they unfold, break away from the substrate and are carried by the wind
• The fruits of feather grass and crail due to hygroscopicity burrow into the ground
• In the yellow acacia, the mature bean dries up, its two wings are spirally twisted, and the seeds are scattered with force.

Active

Active movements are based on the phenomena of irritability and contractility of plant cytoplasmic proteins, as well as growth processes. Perceiving the influences of the environment, plants react to them by increasing the intensity of metabolism, accelerating the movement of the cytoplasm, and growth and other movements. The irritation perceived by the plant is transmitted along the cytoplasmic strands - plasmodesmata, and then the plant as a whole responds to the irritation. Weak irritation causes intensification, strong - inhibition of physiological processes in the plant.

Slow (growth)

These include:

• tropisms (irritation acts in one direction and one-sided growth occurs, resulting in a bending of the organ - geotropism, phototropism, chemotropism, etc.)
• nastia (plant response to the action of stimuli that do not have a specific direction - thermonasty, photonasty, etc.)

Fast (contractile)

They are caused by the unilateral action of stimuli (toward or away from the stimulus): light (phototaxis), chemicals (chemotaxis), etc.

Implemented:

• (in most cases) with the help of flagella (flagellate algae, bacteria, zoospores of immobile algae, as well as lower fungi, spermatozoa of algae, fungi, mosses, ferns and some gymnosperms)
• (less often) as a result of unilateral secretion of mucus (green algae Closterium), active snake-like bends (blue-green algae Oscillatoria, sulfur bacterium Beggiatoa), unilateral movement of protoplasm (mobile diatoms) or the formation of protoplasmic outgrowths (myxomycetes)

Evolution

The evolution of plants went in the direction of losing their ability to locomotor movement. In the vegetative state, only bacteria, some algae and myxomycetes are mobile: in other algae and lower fungi, locomotor movements are inherent only in zoospores and spermatozoa, in higher plants (mosses, club mosses, horsetails, ferns, cycads and ginkgoes) - only in spermatozoa.

see also

Write a review on the article "Movement (biology)"

Notes

Literature

• Timiryazev K. A., Izbr. soch., v. 4, M., 1949, lecture 9
• Kursanov L. I., Komarnitsky N. A., Course of lower plants, 3rd ed., M., 1945.
• Darwin Ch., The ability to move in plants, Soch., vol. 8, M. - L., 1941
• Zenkevich L. A., Essays on the evolution of the motor apparatus of animals, "Journal of General Biology", 1944, v. 5, No. 3: Engelgardt V. A., Chemical bases of the motor function of cells and tissues, "Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR", 1957, No. 11, p. 58
• Kalmykov K. Ph. Investigations of the phenomena of plant irritability in Russian science of the second half of the 19th century, “Tr. Institute of the History of Natural Science and Technology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1960, v. 32, c, 7
• Magnus R., Setting the body, trans. from German., M. - L., 1962
• Lyubimova M.N., On the characteristics of the motor system of Mimosa pudica plants, in the book: Molecular Biology. Problems and prospects, M., 1964
• Poglazov B.F., Structure and functions of contractile proteins, M., 1965
• Bernshtein N. A., Essays on the physiology of movements and the physiology of activity, M., 1966
• Sukhanov V. B., Materials on the location of vertebrates, Bulletin of the Moscow Society of Naturalists, 1967, v. 72, c. 2
• Alexander R., Biomechanics, trans. from English, M., 1970.

An excerpt characterizing the Movement (biology)

- From General Field Marshal Kutuzov? - he asked. “Good news, I hope?” Was there a collision with Mortier? Victory? It's time!
He took the dispatch, which was in his name, and began to read it with a sad expression.
- Oh my god! My God! Schmit! he said in German. What a misfortune, what a misfortune!
Having run through the dispatch, he laid it on the table and looked at Prince Andrei, apparently thinking something.
- Oh, what a misfortune! Deal, you say, decisive? Mortier is not taken, however. (He thought.) I am very glad that you brought good news, although the death of Schmitt is a dear price for victory. His Majesty will certainly wish to see you, but not today. Thank you, take a rest. Be at the exit after the parade tomorrow. However, I will let you know.
The stupid smile that had disappeared during the conversation reappeared on the face of the Minister of War.
- Goodbye, thank you very much. Sovereign Emperor will probably wish to see you,” he repeated and bowed his head.
When Prince Andrei left the palace, he felt that all the interest and happiness brought to him by victory had now been abandoned by him and transferred into the indifferent hands of the Minister of War and the courteous adjutant. His whole frame of mind instantly changed: the battle seemed to him a long-standing, distant memory.

Prince Andrei stayed in Brunn with his acquaintance, the Russian diplomat Bilibin.
“Ah, dear prince, there is no nicer guest,” said Bilibin, going out to meet Prince Andrei. “Franz, the prince’s things in my bedroom!” - he turned to the servant who saw off Bolkonsky. - What, the herald of victory? Wonderful. And I'm sick, as you can see.
Prince Andrei, having washed and dressed, went out into the luxurious office of the diplomat and sat down to the prepared dinner. Bilibin calmly sat down by the fireplace.
Prince Andrei, not only after his journey, but also after the entire campaign, during which he was deprived of all the comforts of purity and elegance of life, experienced a pleasant feeling of relaxation among those luxurious living conditions to which he had become accustomed since childhood. In addition, after the Austrian reception, he was pleased to talk, if not in Russian (they spoke French), but with a Russian person who, he assumed, shared the general Russian disgust (now felt especially vividly) for the Austrians.
Bilibin was a man of about thirty-five, single, of the same society as Prince Andrei. They had known each other in St. Petersburg, but they got to know each other even more closely during Prince Andrei's last visit to Vienna with Kutuzov. As Prince Andrei was a young man, promising to go far in the military field, so, and even more so, Bilibin promised in the diplomatic one. He was still a young man, but no longer a young diplomat, since he began to serve at the age of sixteen, he had been in Paris, in Copenhagen, and now occupied a rather significant place in Vienna. Both the chancellor and our envoy in Vienna knew him and cherished him. He was not one of those many diplomats who are obliged to have only negative virtues, not to do famous things and speak French in order to be very good diplomats; he was one of those diplomats who love and know how to work, and, despite his laziness, he sometimes spent his nights at his desk. He worked equally well, whatever the essence of the work. He was not interested in the question “why?”, but in the question “how?”. What the diplomatic matter was, he did not care; but to draw up skillfully, aptly and gracefully a circular, memorandum or report - in this he found great pleasure. The merits of Bilibin were valued, in addition to written works, also for his art of addressing and speaking in higher spheres.
Bilibin loved conversation just as he loved work, only when the conversation could be elegantly witty. In society, he constantly waited for an opportunity to say something remarkable and entered into a conversation only under these conditions. Bilibin's conversation was constantly sprinkled with originally witty, complete phrases of common interest.
These phrases were prepared in Bilibin's internal laboratory, as if on purpose, of a portable nature, so that insignificant secular people could conveniently memorize them and transfer them from living rooms to living rooms. And indeed, les mots de Bilibine se colportaient dans les salons de Vienne, [Bilibin's reviews diverged in Viennese living rooms] and often had an impact on so-called important matters.
His thin, emaciated, yellowish face was all covered with large wrinkles, which always seemed to be as cleanly and painstakingly washed as the tips of fingers after a bath. The movements of these wrinkles constituted the main play of his physiognomy. Now his forehead was wrinkled in wide folds, his eyebrows went up, then his eyebrows went down, and large wrinkles formed on his cheeks. Deep-set, small eyes always looked directly and cheerfully.
“Well, now tell us your exploits,” he said.
Bolkonsky in the most modest way, never mentioning himself, told the case and the reception of the Minister of War.
- Ils m "ont recu avec ma nouvelle, comme un chien dans un jeu de quilles, [They accepted me with this news, as they accept a dog when it interferes with the game of skittles,] he concluded.
Bilibin grinned and loosened the folds of his skin.
- Cependant, mon cher, - he said, examining his nail from afar and picking up the skin above his left eye, - malgre la haute estime que je professe pour le Orthodox Russian army, j "avoue que votre victoire n" est pas des plus victorieuses. [However, my dear, with all due respect to the Orthodox Russian army, I believe that your victory is not the most brilliant.]
He continued all the same in French, pronouncing in Russian only those words that he contemptuously wanted to emphasize.
- How? You, with all your weight, attacked the unfortunate Mortier with one division, and this Mortier is slipping between your hands? Where is the victory?
“However, speaking seriously,” answered Prince Andrei, “we can still say without boasting that this is a little better than Ulm ...
“Why didn’t you take us one, at least one marshal?”
- Because not everything is done as expected, and not as regularly as in the parade. We thought, as I told you, to go to the rear by seven o'clock in the morning, and did not arrive even at five in the evening.
"Why didn't you come at seven o'clock in the morning?" You should have come at seven o'clock in the morning, - Bilibin said smiling, - you should have come at seven o'clock in the morning.
“Why didn’t you convince Bonaparte by diplomatic means that it was better for him to leave Genoa? - Prince Andrei said in the same tone.
“I know,” Bilibin interrupted, “you think it’s very easy to take marshals while sitting on the sofa in front of the fireplace.” It's true, but still, why didn't you take it? And do not be surprised that not only the Minister of War, but also the august emperor and King Franz will not be very happy with your victory; and I, the unfortunate secretary of the Russian embassy, ​​do not feel any need to give my Franz a thaler as a token of joy and let him go with his Liebchen [darling] to the Prater ... True, there is no Prater here.
He looked directly at Prince Andrei and suddenly pulled the collected skin off his forehead.
“Now it’s my turn to ask you why, my dear,” said Bolkonsky. - I confess that I don’t understand, maybe there are diplomatic subtleties beyond my weak mind, but I don’t understand: Mack loses an entire army, Archduke Ferdinand and Archduke Karl do not give any signs of life and make mistakes after mistakes, finally, one Kutuzov wins a real victory, destroys the charme [charm] of the French, and the Minister of War is not even interested in knowing the details.
“It is from this, my dear. Voyez vous, mon cher: [You see, my dear:] hooray! for the tsar, for Russia, for the faith! Tout ca est bel et bon, [all this is fine and good,] but what do we, I say, the Austrian court, care about your victories? Bring us your good news about the victory of Archduke Charles or Ferdinand - un archiduc vaut l "autre, [one archduke is worth another,] as you know - at least over a company of Bonaparte's fire brigade, this is another matter, we will thunder into cannons. Otherwise, this , as if on purpose, can only tease us. Archduke Karl does nothing, Archduke Ferdinand is covered with disgrace. You leave Vienna, you no longer defend, comme si vous nous disiez: [as if you told us:] God is with us, and God is with you, with your capital. One general whom we all loved, Schmitt: you bring him under a bullet and congratulate us on the victory! ... You must admit that it is impossible to imagine more irritating than the news that you bring. comme unfait expres. [This is as if on purpose, as if on purpose.] Besides, well, if you won a brilliant victory, even if Archduke Karl won, what would change the general course of affairs? It's too late now that Vienna is occupied by French troops.
- How busy? Vienna busy?
- Not only busy, but Bonaparte is in Schönbrunn, and the count, our dear Count Vrbna, goes to him for orders.
Bolkonsky, after fatigue and the impressions of the journey, the reception, and especially after dinner, felt that he did not understand the full meaning of the words he heard.
“Count Lichtenfels was here this morning,” Bilibin continued, “and showed me a letter detailing the French parade in Vienna. Le prince Murat et tout le tremblement ... [Prince Murat and all that ...] You see that your victory is not very joyful, and that you cannot be accepted as a savior ...
“Really, it doesn’t matter to me, it doesn’t matter at all! - said Prince Andrei, beginning to understand that his news of the battle near Krems really had little importance in view of such events as the occupation of the capital of Austria. - How is Vienna taken? And what about the bridge and the famous tete de pont, [bridge fortification,] and Prince Auersperg? We had rumors that Prince Auersperg was defending Vienna,” he said.
- Prince Auersperg stands on this, on our side, and protects us; I think it protects very poorly, but still protects. Vienna is on the other side. No, the bridge has not yet been taken and, I hope, will not be taken, because it is mined and ordered to be blown up. Otherwise, we would have been in the mountains of Bohemia long ago, and you and your army would have spent a bad quarter of an hour between two fires.
“But this still does not mean that the campaign is over,” said Prince Andrei.
- I think it's over. And so the big hats here think, but dare not say it. It will be what I said at the beginning of the campaign, that it’s not your echauffouree de Durenstein, [Durenstein skirmish,] not gunpowder that will decide the matter at all, but those who invented it, ”Bilibin said, repeating one of his mots [words], loosening his skin on the forehead and pausing. - The only question is what the Berlin meeting of Emperor Alexander with the Prussian king will say. If Prussia enters into an alliance, on forcera la main a l "Autriche, [force Austria,] and there will be war. If not, then the only thing is to agree on where to draw up the initial articles of the new Samro Formio. [Campo Formio.]
“But what extraordinary genius! - Prince Andrei suddenly cried out, squeezing his small hand and hitting it on the table. And what a blessing this man is!
— Buonaparte? [Buonaparte?] - Bilibin said inquiringly, wrinkling his forehead and thus making it feel that now it will be un mot [a word]. - Bu onaparte? - he said, striking especially on u. - I think, however, that now that he prescribes the laws of Austria from Schönbrunn, il faut lui faire grace de l "u. [I must save him from and.] I resolutely make an innovation and call it Bonaparte tout court [just Bonaparte].
“No, no joke,” said Prince Andrei, “do you really think that the campaign is over?
– Here's what I think. Austria was left in the cold, but she was not used to this. And she will repay. And she was left in a fool because, firstly, the provinces were ruined (on dit, le Orthodox est terrible pour le pillage), [they say that the Orthodox are terrible in terms of robberies,] the army is defeated, the capital is taken, and all this pour les beaux yeux du [for the sake of beautiful eyes,] Sardinian majesty. And therefore - entre nous, mon cher [between us, my dear] - I can smell that we are being deceived, I can smell relations with France and projects for peace, a secret world, separately concluded.

Abstract on the topic:

Movement (biology)

Plan:

Introduction

• 1 Forms of cell mobility
• 2 The motor apparatus and organs of locomotion of multicellular animals
• 3 Classification
  • 3.1 Along the paths of movement (movement)
  • 3.2 By activity
    • 3.2.1 Passive
    • 3.2.2 Active
• 4 Evolution
• 5 human movements
• 6 Study
• 7 Movements in plants
  • 7.1 Passive (hygroscopic)
  • 7.2 Active
    • 7.2.1 Slow (growth)
    • 7.2.2 Fast (contractile)
  • 7.3 Evolution
Notes
Literature

Introduction

Motion(in biology) - one of the manifestations of vital activity, providing the body with the possibility of active interaction with the environment, in particular, moving from place to place, capturing food, etc.

Movement is the result of the interaction of forces external to the body (down - gravity, back - environmental resistance) and own forces (usually forward or up - muscle tension, contraction of myofibrils, movement of protoplasm).

Most bacteria are propelled by bacterial flagella, while unicellular eukaryotes are propelled by flagella, cilia, or pseudopodia. In a number of primitive metazoans (Trichoplax, ciliary worms) and many planktonic larvae, many movements are carried out due to the work of the cilia of the integumentary epithelium. In most multicellular animals, they are carried out with the help of special organs, the structure of which is peculiar in different animals and depends on the type of their locomotion and environmental conditions (ground, water, air). But even in these cases, the movement of the organism and its parts is the result of a few types of cellular mobility.

For some animals (for example, hydroid polyps) and many plants, growth movements are characteristic.

1. Forms of cell motility

• Pseudopodia (pseudopodia) provide amoeboid movement (slow flow of cytoplasm associated with a change in the shape of the cell)
• Cilia and flagella provide ciliary and flagellar movement
• Myocytes (muscle tissue cells) provide muscle contraction

In addition to these basic forms, there are other, less studied ones (sliding movement of gregarines, myxobacteria, and filamentous cyanobacteria, contraction of spasmonemae, etc.).

2. The motor apparatus and organs of locomotion of multicellular animals

• Special appendages of the body, with the help of which animals cling to the irregularities of the substrate (setae, scales, scutes) or attach to it (suckers).
• limbs representing a system of levers set in motion by muscle contractions (the most common design).

Organs can be used by organisms that have freedom of movement. In the absence of such (in attached aquatic animals - sponges, corals, etc., leading a fixed lifestyle), cilia and flagella are used to set in motion their environment, which supplies them with food and oxygen.

Purposeful movements are possible only with the coordinated work of a significant number of muscles or cilia, the coordination of which, as a rule, is carried out by the nervous system.

3. Classification

3.1. Along the paths of movement (movement)

• On the substrate, that is, on a solid or liquid support (walking, running, jumping, crawling, sliding)
• Free in the water - swimming
• Free in the air - flying, gliding, hovering
• In the substrate (drilling)

3.2. By activity

3.2.1. passive

In water and air, movement can be passive:

• moving long distances, some spiders release cobwebs and are carried away by air currents.
• soaring observed in birds using air currents
• Some aquatic animals have devices that maintain their body in a suspended state (vacuoles in the outer layer of radiolarian protoplasm, air bubbles in siphonophore colonies, etc.).

3.2.2. Active

• In the water is carried out:
  • using specialized rowing devices (from hairs and flagella to modified limbs of water turtles, birds, pinnipeds)
  • bendings of the whole body (most fish, tailed amphibians, etc.)
  • in a jet way - by pushing water out of the body cavities (jellyfish, cephalopods, etc.).
• In the air - flying - is characteristic of most insects, birds and some mammals (bats). Movement by air so-called. flying fish, frogs, mammals (flying squirrels, etc.) - not flying, but an elongated gliding jump, carried out with the help of such supporting devices as elongated pectoral fins, interdigital membranes of the legs, skin folds, etc.

4. Evolution

In the course of evolution, the types of movement of animals became more complicated. The emergence of a rigid skeleton and striated muscles was one of the important stages of evolution. As a result, the structure of the nervous system became more complex, a variety of movements appeared, and the vital possibilities of organisms expanded.

5. Human movements

They are the most important way of its interaction with the environment and active influence on it.

They are of great variety:

• Movements associated with vegetative functions
• locomotion
• labor
• household
• sports
• associated with speech and writing.

"... all external manifestations of brain activity can really be reduced to muscle movement" I. M. Sechenov

6. Study

There are two directions in the study of the movement of animals and humans:

• identification of biomechanical characteristics of the musculoskeletal system, kinematic and dynamic description of natural movements
• neurophysiological - elucidation of the patterns of control of the nervous system by movement

Muscles that carry out movement are reflexively controlled by impulses from the central nervous system.

The basic locomotor movements, being inherited (certainly reflex), develop in the course of individual development and as a result of constant exercises. Mastering new movements is a complex process of forming new conditioned reflex connections and strengthening them. With multiple repetitions, voluntary movements are performed more consistently, more economically and gradually become automated. The most important role in the regulation of movement belongs to the signals entering the nervous system from proprioceptors located in the muscles, tendons and joints, reporting the direction, magnitude and speed of the movement, activating reflex arcs in different parts of the nervous system, the interaction of which ensures the coordination of movement.

7. Movements in plants

7.1. Passive (hygroscopic)

Associated with a change in the water content in the colloids that make up the cell membrane.

They play an important role for flowering plants in the distribution of seeds and fruits.

• At the Jericho rose growing in the desert of Arabia, the branches are folded in dry air, and in damp air they unfold, break away from the substrate and are carried by the wind
• The fruits of feather grass and crail due to hygroscopicity burrow into the ground
• In the yellow acacia, the mature bean dries up, its two wings are spirally twisted, and the seeds are scattered with force.

7.2. Active

Active movements are based on the phenomena of irritability and contractility of plant cytoplasmic proteins, as well as growth processes. Perceiving the influences of the environment, plants react to them by increasing the intensity of metabolism, accelerating the movement of the cytoplasm, and growth and other movements. The irritation perceived by the plant is transmitted along the cytoplasmic strands - plasmodesmata, and then the plant as a whole responds to the irritation. Weak irritation causes intensification, strong - inhibition of physiological processes in the plant.

7.2.1. Slow (growth)

These include:

• tropisms (irritation acts in one direction and one-sided growth occurs, resulting in a bending of the organ - geotropism, phototropism, chemotropism, etc.)
• nastia (plant response to the action of stimuli that do not have a specific direction - thermonasty, photonasty, etc.)

7.2.2. Fast (contractile)

Often called turgor, are the result of the interaction of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) with contractile proteins. Thus, the mechanism of contractile movements in plants is almost the same as in the contraction of human muscles, the movement of the slime mold or zoospores of algae.

Active contractile movements include movements in space of some lower organisms - taxis, caused, like tropisms, by one-sided irritation. Bacteria equipped with flagella, some algae, antherozoids of mosses and ferns are capable of taxis. Many algae (chlamydomonas) show positive phototaxis, moss antherozoids gather in capillaries containing a weak sucrose solution, and ferns - malic acid solution (chemotaxis).

The contractile movements, probably associated with contractions of the protein substance of the cytoplasm, also include seismomonasties. Autonomous movements are close to seismonasties. So, the semaphore ind. plants Desmodium gyrans complex leaf consists of a large plate and two smaller lateral plates, which alternately descend and rise like a semaphore. Under unfavorable conditions (darkness) these movements stop. In biophytum (Biophytum sensitivum), with strong irritation, the leaves fold like a mimosa, making a series of rhythmic contractions. At the same time, apparently, there is a breakdown of ATP and its rapid restoration, which causes continuous movements of the leaves under the influence of stimuli. Oxalis leaves are folded under the influence of strong light, darkness, elevated temperature. By the evening, the leaves of oxalis are folded, and already at night they open, apparently, after the connection of ATP with contractile proteins is restored. Plants capable of nyctinastic (Acacia dealbata), seismonastic (Mimosa pudica), and also of autonomous movement (biol.) (Desmodium gyrans) have high ATP activity. In plants that are not capable of movement, it is negligible (Desmodium canadensis). The highest content of ATP is found in those plant tissues that are associated with movement. Previously, the prevailing opinion was that the movement of mimosa leaves is associated with the loss of turgor and the release of water into the intercellular spaces in the leaf joints. V. A. Engelgardt assumes the participation of ATP in osmotic phenomena associated with the movement of mimosa leaves and dehydration of its cells in the joints.

Locomotor movements in plants - active movements in the aquatic environment, characteristic of bacteria, lower algae and myxomycetes, as well as zoospores and spermatozoa.

They are caused by the unilateral action of stimuli (toward or away from the stimulus): light (phototaxis), chemicals (chemotaxis), etc.

Implemented:

• (in most cases) with the help of flagella (flagellate algae, bacteria, zoospores of immobile algae, as well as lower fungi, spermatozoa of algae, fungi, mosses, ferns and some gymnosperms)
• (less often) as a result of unilateral secretion of mucus (green algae Closterium), active snake-like bends (blue-green algae Oscillatoria, sulfur bacterium Beggiatoa), unilateral movement of protoplasm (mobile diatoms) or the formation of protoplasmic outgrowths (myxomycetes)

7.3. Evolution

The evolution of plants went in the direction of losing their ability to locomotor movement. In the vegetative state, only bacteria, some algae and myxomycetes are mobile: in other algae and lower fungi, locomotor movements are inherent only in zoospores and spermatozoa, in higher plants (mosses, club mosses, horsetails, ferns, cycads and ginkgoes) - only in spermatozoa.