Medieval universities and features of their development. Medieval universities Table of three periods of formation of medieval European universities

Introduction

The early Middle Ages are sometimes referred to as the "Dark Ages". The transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages was accompanied in Western Europe by a deep decline in culture. Not only the barbarian invasions that destroyed the Western Roman Empire led to the destruction of the cultural values ​​of antiquity. No less destructive than the blows of the Visigoths, Vandals and Lombards was the hostile attitude of the Church for the ancient cultural heritage. Pope Gregory I waged an open war against culture. He forbade the reading of books by ancient authors and the study of mathematics, accusing the latter of being associated with magic. The most important area of ​​culture - education - was going through especially difficult times. Once Gregory I proclaimed: “Ignorance is the mother of true piety.”*2

Truly ignorance reigned in Western Europe in the 5th-10th centuries. It was almost impossible to find literate people not only among the peasants, but also among the nobility. Many knights put a simple cross instead of a signature. Theodoric of Ostgoth, unable to write, used to sign a tablet on which his name was carved. Until the end of his life, he could not learn to write the founder of the Frankish state, the famous Charlemagne. But the emperor was clearly not indifferent to knowledge. Already in adulthood, he resorted to the services of teachers. Having begun to study the art of writing shortly before his death, Karl carefully kept waxed boards and sheets of parchment under his pillow, and in his spare time he diligently learned to draw letters. The sovereign patronized scientists. Charles issued a decree on the establishment of schools at the monasteries, and then - the capitulary on education, where the compulsory education of free children was prescribed. This was not carried out due to the lack of a sufficient number of literate people. A special school was organized at the court, where people were trained to govern the state. Charles invited educated people from all over Europe and placed them in high state and church positions. Many of them made up a scientific circle, called the Academy after the name of the philosophical school of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. This academy was something between a meeting of friends and a learned community, where philosophical and theological questions were discussed in free conversation, at a feast, Latin verses were composed and read.

Members of the academy bore special nicknames, which clearly manifested the combination of ancient and Christian ideas in the views of Charles and his entourage. Karl himself had the nickname David, in honor of the biblical king David, the prototype of all God-loving monks.

By his order, a cathedral was erected in Aachen. He ordered to compose a grammar of the Frankish language, and to collect Germanic songs. His court in Aachen became the center of education. In a specially created school, the famous scientist and writer Alcuin (Flakk Albin, c. 735-804, Anglo-Saxon scientist, author of theological treatises, textbooks on philosophy, mathematics, etc.; figure in the Carolingian Renaissance, adviser to Charlemagne, abbot of the Tours monastery), who taught the sons of Charles himself and the children of his entourage. A few educated people came to Aachen from all over illiterate Europe. Following the example of antiquity, the society of scientists gathered at the court began to be called the Academy. Alcuin became the abbot of the richest monastery of St. Martin in the city of Tours, where he also founded a school, many of whose students later became famous teachers of the monastery and church schools in France.

The cultural upsurge that occurred during the reign of Charlemagne and his successors was called the "Carolingian Renaissance". However, it was short-lived. Soon cultural life again concentrated in the monasteries.

Monastic and church schools were the very first educational institutions of the Middle Ages. And although the Christian Church retained only selective remnants of ancient education it needed (primarily Latin), it was in them that the cultural tradition continued, linking different eras.

But time passed. Growing cities and growing states needed more and more educated people. Judges and officials, doctors and teachers were needed.

The time has come for the formation of higher schools - universities.

medieval universities

In the XII century, the world's first higher schools - universities - began to appear in Europe. Some universities, for example, in Seville, Paris, Toulouse, Naples, Cambridge, Oxford, Valencia, Bologna were founded in the XII - XIII centuries. The rest, for example, in Uppsala, Copenhagen, Rostock, Orleans were founded later - in the XIV - XV centuries.

Let's imagine that we are in the auditorium of a medieval university. It resembles the auditorium of a university today: in the same way, benches are arranged in stepped rows, below there is a massive oak pulpit, behind which stands a professor lecturing. Some students listen intently and from time to time write something with lead on waxed boards. Others whisper or, tired, doze off. The diversity of the audience is striking: a variety of camisoles, raincoats, berets. Seventeen-year-old youths and men beginning to go bald are visible. Looking closely, you can see people of different nationalities: Spaniards, Germans, French, British.

Strange: listeners speak different languages, and yet understand everything. Why? But the fact is that for all European (especially Western European) countries, the language of science, as well as worship, was Latin. Thousands of schoolchildren were required to learn Latin at that time. Many could not stand it and ran away from cramming and beatings. But for those who still endured, Latin became a familiar and understandable language, and therefore the lecture in Latin was understandable to listeners from different countries.

On the professorial chair, which was supported by a triangular music stand, lay a huge book. The word "lecture" means "reading". Indeed, a medieval professor read a book, sometimes interrupting the reading with explanations. The content of this book students had to perceive by ear, learn by memory. The fact is that books in those days were handwritten and were very expensive. And not everyone could afford to buy it.

Thousands of people flocked to the city where the famous scientist appeared. For example, at the end of the 11th century in the city of Bologna, where Irnerius, an expert on Roman law, appeared, a school of legal knowledge arose. Gradually, this school became the University of Bologna. It was the same with Salerno, another Italian city that became famous as the main university center of medical science. Opened in the 12th century, the University of Paris won recognition as the main center of theology. Following several higher schools of the XII century. most medieval universities arose in the 13th and 14th centuries. in England, France, Spain, Portugal, Czech Republic, Poland and Germany.

It was often difficult for a foreign student to negotiate with the locals. Sellers, innkeepers and innkeepers shortchanged the aliens, and the guards and judges looked at it through their fingers and even ... subjected students to unfair punishments!

The struggle for the protection of their rights forced students and teachers to unite. So, outraged by insults and harassment, students and professors left Bologna for 10 years, and the city immediately lost not only fame, but also the income that the university brought to it. The solemn return of the university followed only after the city recognized its full independence. This meant that the professors, students and employees of the university were not subordinate to the city authorities, but to the elected deans of the faculties and the rector.

Over time, faculties appeared in the medieval university: legal, medical, theological. But the training began with the “preparatory” faculty, where the so-called “seven liberal arts” were taught. And since in Latin art is “artes”, the faculty was also called artistic. Students - "artists" first studied grammar. then rhetoric, dialectics (which meant logic); only after that did they move on to arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. The “artists” were young people, and according to the university regulations, they could be flogged, like schoolchildren, while older students were not subjected to such punishments.

Medieval science was called scholastic (literally - school). the essence of this science and its main flaw was expressed by an old proverb: “Philosophy is the servant of theology.” And not only philosophy, but also all the sciences of that time had to strengthen the truths of religion, blind trust in the teachings of the church with each of their conclusions, with each of their words.

Disputes occupied an important place in the academic life of the medieval university. At the so-called master's disputes, the master who taught the students skillfully drew them into the dispute. Offering to confirm or dispute the theses put forward by him, he forced the students to mentally compare these theses with the opinions of the "fathers of the church", with the decisions of church councils and papal messages. During the dispute, each thesis was opposed by the opponent's counterthesis. The offensive tactic is to lead the enemy to such a forced confession, which either contradicted his own statement, or diverged from the unshakable church truths, which was tantamount to accusation of heresy.

But even in the Middle Ages there were people of bold thought who did not want to repeat the same church truths day after day. They sought to break free from the shackles of scholasticism, to open up a wider scope for science.

In the 12th century, the young scientist Peter Abelard spoke out against the professor of the University of Paris, Guillaume Champeau. In the heated disputes that ensued, the professor could not manage to get the better of his young rival. Champaud demanded that Abelard be expelled from Paris. But this did not stop Abelard. He settled in the suburbs of Paris and continued to follow the professor's every word. After each lecture in the cold and rain, in winter and autumn, tireless students covered at least 30 km in a day, made their way from Paris to the suburbs and back to tell Abelard everything that Champeau had said and put the latter in a dead end in front of Abelard's new objections. This dispute, which lasted for months, ended in a brilliant victory for Abelard. The gray-haired professor not only recognized the correctness of the young opponent, but also considered it necessary to transfer his department to him.

Abelard was not satisfied with the opinion of the scholastics, who believed that "faith precedes understanding." He argued that "it is possible to believe only in such a truth, which becomes understandable to the mind." Thus, faith in incomprehensible, meaningless and fantastic things was rejected. Abelard taught that "through doubt we investigate, and through investigation we come to know the truth."

In the bold teaching of Abelard, the church saw a dangerous threat, since the unshakable truths of the church, the so-called dogmas, would not stand the test of doubt and criticism.

Abelard has come a long way. Physically crippled by his enemies, expelled from Paris, he ended up in a remote monastery. At the end of his life, he was condemned by a church council as a heretic, and the threat of execution constantly hung over him.

But since the time of Abelard, the audiences of medieval universities have increasingly become the arena of the struggle for reason and science.

Since the 13th century, the school has acted as a university. Universitas is a typical product of the Middle Ages. If the ancient analogues, which medieval schools imitated and in some way updated them, were the model of schools, then the university did not have its own prototype. This kind of corporate formations and free associations of students and mentors with their privileges, established programs, diplomas, titles, antiquity has not seen either in the west or in the east.

The term “university” itself did not originally indicate a center of education, rather, a corporate association, or, in modern terms, it was a kind of “syndicate” protecting the interests of a certain category of people. Paris is a model of organization that other universities have more or less followed. In Paris, the "universitas magistroom et scolarum", the combined corporation of masters and students, prevailed. In the 12th century, the Notre Dame Cathedral School, which gathered under its shadow students from all over Europe, was noted for its special superiority, and soon became the object of attention of the Roman curia. Autonomization proceeded under the direct supervision of the king, the bishop and his chancellor. A fact worth mentioning is that the desire for freedom of teaching, as opposed to the pressure of local authorities, found tangible support in the form of papal patronage.

2. University and its mitigating effects

Two effects accompanied the activities of universities. The first is the birth of a certain class of scientists, priests and lay people, to whom the church entrusted the mission of teaching the truths of revelation. The historical significance of this phenomenon lies in the fact that even today the official doctrine of the Church should and can be entrusted only to church hierarchs. Masters were officially allowed to discuss matters of faith. Saint Thomas, Albertus Magnus and Bonaventure would later be called "Doctors of the Church". Along with the traditional two powers - ecclesiastical and secular - a third appeared - the power of intellectuals, whose influence on social life became more and more tangible over time.

The second effect is associated with the opening of the University of Paris, where students and teachers of all classes flocked. University society from the very beginning did not know caste distinctions; rather, it formed a new caste of heterogeneous social elements. And, if in subsequent eras the university acquires aristocratic features, the medieval one was originally “folk”, in the sense that the children of peasants and artisans through a system of privileges (in the form of low tuition prices and free housing) became students, taking on the burden of the most severe obligations inevitable on this thorny path. Goliards and clerks constituted, as it were, a world in itself. Their "nobility" was no longer determined by their class origin, but hung over the accumulated cultural baggage. A new meaning of the concept of “nobility” and “refinement” appeared in the meaning of the aristocracy of the mind and behavior, the subtlety of the psyche and the refinement of taste. Boccaccio will rightly speak out on this matter: “not the one who, after a long study in Paris, is ready to sell his knowledge on trifles, as many do, is educated, but the one who knows how to inquire into the causes of everything at the very source”

General characteristics of the University of Paris

All classes were conducted in Latin, so the Germans, French, Spaniards could listen to the Italian professor with no less success than his compatriots. Students also communicated in Latin with each other. However, in everyday life, "strangers" were forced to enter into communication with local bakers, brewers, tavern owners and landlords. The latter, of course, did not know Latin and were not averse to cheating and deceiving a foreign scholar. Since the students could not count on the help of the city court in numerous conflicts with local residents, they, together with the teachers, united in a union, which was called the “university”. The University of Paris included about 7 thousand teachers and students, and in addition to them were members of the union - booksellers, copyists of manuscripts, manufacturers of parchment, quills, ink powder, pharmacists, etc. In a long struggle with the city authorities, which went on with varying success (sometimes teachers and students left the hated city and moved to another place), the university achieved self-government: now it had elected leaders and its own court. The University of Paris was granted independence from secular authorities in 1200. charter of King Philip II Augustus.

The life of schoolchildren from poor families was not easy. Here is how Chaucer describes it:

Having interrupted hard work on logic,

A Parisian student trudged along next to us.

Hardly a poorer beggar would be found ...

Need and hunger accustomed steadfastly,

He put the log at the head of the bed.

He is sweeter to have twenty books,

Than an expensive dress, a lute, food ... * 5

But the students were not discouraged. They knew how to enjoy life, their youth, to have fun from the heart. This is especially true for vagants - wandering schoolchildren moving from city to city in search of knowledgeable teachers or an opportunity to earn extra money. Often they did not want to bother with their studies, they sang with pleasure the vagants at their feasts:

Let's drop all wisdom

Side teaching!

Enjoy in youth

Our appointment.*6

The teachers of the university created an association in subjects - faculties. They were headed by deans. Teachers and students elected the rector - the head of the university. Medieval high school usually had three faculties: law, philosophy (theology) and medicine. But if the preparation of a future lawyer or physician took five or six years, then the future philosopher - theologian - as much as 15.

However, before entering one of the three faculties, the student had to graduate from the preparatory - artistic - faculty (they studied the "seven liberal arts"; from the Latin "artis" - "art"). In the classroom, students listened to and recorded lectures (in Latin - “reading”) of professors and masters. The erudition of the teacher was manifested in his ability to explain what he read, to connect it with the content of other books, to reveal the meaning of terms and scientific concepts. In addition to lectures, debates were held - disputes on issues raised in advance. Hot in heat, sometimes they turned into hand-to-hand fights between the participants.

In the 14th - 15th centuries. there are so-called colleges (hence - colleges). At first, this was the name of the student hostel. Over time, they also began to hold lectures and debates. Board. Which was founded by Robert de Sorbon, the confessor of the French king - Sorbonne - gradually grew and gave its name to the entire University of Paris.

PRAGUE UNIVERSITY was the largest school of the Middle Ages. At the beginning of the 15th century, students in Europe attended 65 universities, and at the end of the century - already 79. * 7 The most famous among them were: Paris, Bologna, Cambridge, Oxford, Prague, Kakovo. Many of them exist to this day, deservedly proud of their rich history and carefully preserve ancient traditions.

13th century: The University of Paris and its translations.

A) Dominicans and Franciscans

Medieval schools were often taught by people of different nationalities. Some of these schools, organized on a more or less international basis, fell into decay and ceased to exist. Others have become universities.

In the course of time, however, some centers of scholarship, which had faculties of theology, law, and medicine, became universities in a different sense: they had charters, statutes, and established forms of government, and their professors had the right to teach everywhere. The University of Paris grew out of the cathedral school of Notre Dame, and although the date of its founding is often given as 1215, when its statutes were approved by the papal legate Robert de Courcon, it is clear that these statutes existed before. The University of Paris has developed a system of colleges controlled by doctors or professors. In the thirteenth century, the University of Paris was undoubtedly at the forefront of theology and speculative philosophy. An important event in the life of this university was the establishment of educational institutions created by new monastic orders. The Order of Preachers, commonly known as the Dominican, showed an understandable interest in the study of theology. But St. Francis of Assisi, with his commitment to the literal following of Christ and the apostles on the path of poverty, did not even think of his followers owning educational institutions and libraries and teaching at universities. * 8 However, the transformation of the original community of followers, or fellows of this saint into an organized community, by members which the priests were, made it necessary to take care of the study. In addition, the Holy See was quick to appreciate the potential of the new fervent mendicant orders. In particular, Gregory IX, who during his time as a cardinal took care of the development of education among the Franciscans, did everything possible to introduce the Dominicans and Franciscans into the life of the University of Paris and strengthen their positions there. In 1217, the Dominicans settled at the University of Paris, and in 1229 received a chair of theology there. In the same year, the Franciscans, who settled in Paris a little later, also received a chair, and their first professor was the Englishman Alexander of Gaels.

The penetration of monastic orders into the University of Paris did not occur without serious opposition from the clergy. From the point of view of the orders, this opposition was undoubtedly an expression of prejudice and a desire to protect their legal property rights. From the point of view of their opponents, the monks claimed unjustified benefits and privileges. Opposition to monastic orders lasted quite a long time, sometimes turning into attacks on monastic life itself. But the Dominicans and Franciscans enjoyed the protection of the Holy See, and although the opposition they encountered was strong, it was nevertheless overcome. Famous philosophers of the XIII century in the vast majority were members of monastic orders.

The training course was designed for a long time. However, in those days younger students came to the university than today. * 9 So in the 13th century in Paris, students first studied for six years at the Faculty of Arts. During this period, a student could become a "bachelor" and help in secondary roles in teaching others. But he could not start teaching until he was twenty years old. The content of the training course was "free arts"; Literature was practically not studied, but much attention was paid to grammar. Logic was, of course, mainly the logic of Aristotle, although Porfiry's "Introduction" was also studied.

As already mentioned, the course of theology was taught at first for eight years, but tended to lengthen. After completing the course at the Faculty of Arts and several years of teaching, the student devoted four years to the study of the Bible and two to the study of the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard. After that, he could become a bachelor and lecture on the Bible for two years, and for one year on the Maxims. He received a master's or doctoral degree after another four to five years.

Some students, of course, withstood such a long study in the hope of moving up the church ladder. However, the curriculum itself was clearly oriented toward teaching, toward graduating teachers or professors. And since the study of the "art" prepared for the study of higher sciences and theology, which was considered the queen of all sciences, obtaining a master's or doctoral degree in theology, giving the right to teach, was naturally seen as the pinnacle of an academic career. From this it is easy to understand why the most prominent thinkers of the Middle Ages were theologians.

B) Prohibition of Aristotle at the Faculty of Arts

The increase in knowledge about Aristotelianism had a huge impact on the intellectual life of the 13th century. Thanks to translations, Aristotle was transformed from a more or less pure logician into a creator of an all-encompassing system. Since this system obviously owed nothing to Christianity, it became, one might say, the embodiment of philosophy, and its author was known as the Philosopher. It is only natural that Aristotle was read in the light of commentaries and studies written by Islamic and Jewish thinkers.

In 1210, the local Council in Paris, under threat of excommunication, prohibited the use of Aristotle's works on the Natural Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts, whether publicly or privately. In 1215, shortly before, the approved charter of the University of Paris forbade professors of the Faculty of Arts to lecture on the writings of Aristotle on metaphysics and the philosophy of nature, or on their expositions. In 1231, Pope Gregory IX issued a bull in which he stated that writings banned in 1210 should not be used in Paris until they were cleared of all suspicious places.

In 1245, Innocent IV extended the prohibitions of 1210 and 1215. To the university in Toulouse, which used to be so proud of its freedom. But it is clear that in Paris these laws were observed for some time. However, starting from about 1255, lectures were given in Paris on all known writings of Aristotle - a fact all the more surprising because in 1263 Urban IV confirmed the bull of Gregory IX in regard to supporting the prohibitions of 1210. This fact was explained by different; in particular, it has been suggested that the pope reissued the bull of his predecessor, without paying attention to the fact that this means a repetition of the prohibition of 1210. It sounds strange. But the confirmation of the prohibition is strange in itself, since Urban IV must have known perfectly well that William of Meerbecke was translating Aristotle in his own curia. Be that as it may, in 1263 lectures on Aristotle in Paris were given freely.

The whole point was that Aristotle's philosophy as a whole seemed to be a comprehensive naturalistic system and that, in particular, some of Aristotle's theories were incompatible with Christian theology. In other words, Aristotelianism was perceived by some minds as a potential threat to the Christian faith. Professors of theology could be trusted to correct all errors or misconceptions. The teachers of the Faculty of Arts were not to be allowed to inculcate certain doctrines or sow doubts in their young pupils. This seems to be the most plausible explanation.*10

The greatness and weakness of university politics

With the departure of many Englishmen during the Hundred Years' War and numerous Germans during the Great Schism, the University of Paris has become increasingly French in composition. At least since the reign of Philip the Fair, he has played a significant political role. Charles V called him the eldest daughter of the King. * 11 The university is officially represented in the national cathedrals of the French Church, in the assembly of the States General. He acts as an intermediary during the struggle of the court and the Parisians, led by Étienne Marcel, during the uprising of the Mayotins; the signature of the representative of the university is under the contract in Troyes.

The prestige of the university is huge. It is explained not only by the number of students and teachers, but also by all the masters who graduated from it, who occupy primary positions throughout France and abroad, maintaining close ties with the university.

At the same time, he is associated with the papacy. In addition, all the Avignon popes are French, they clearly patronize the university, bind it to themselves with generous gifts. Every year, a scroll with the names of mayors is sent to the Avignon Palace, for which the university graciously asks the pope for feeding or church benefice. If he was the eldest daughter of the King, then he was also the first school of the Church and played the role of international arbiter in theological matters.*12

The schism shook this balance. At first, the university sided with the Avignon pope, but then, tired of the ever-growing extortion of the pope, caring about restoring the unity of the church, the university leaves the decision to the king of France, while he tirelessly calls for a conciliar reunion in order to end the schism by abdicating rival high priests. At the same time, the university defends the supremacy of the Council over the pope, the relative independence of the national church from the Holy See, i.e. Gallicanism. But if the first demand raised the prestige of the university in Christendom, the second led to a chill in relations with the papacy and to the growing influence of the monarchy over it.

It seemed to be a complete success. The Cathedral of Constance, where the university played a leading role, sanctifies this triumph. By the way, the curious positions of some of the university masters are noticeable on it. The English masters take the side of the papacy on the issue of beneficiation. They think about their own interests, and they were better served by this side.

In those days, a purely French crisis broke out, which undermined the position of the Paris University.

After the uprising, Paris becomes the capital of the English king. Of course, the university did not immediately go over to the side of the Burgundians, and those who switched were part of it. The duke relied on mendicant orders with which the university traditionally did not get along. The university condemned and prosecuted Jean Petit, an apologist for the assassination of the Duke of Orleans. At the time of the capture of the city by the British, many masters left Paris. But those who remained in Paris became burgundy and submitted to the will of the British. The most famous episode of this English period of the University of Paris was his actions against Joan of Arc. In declaring its hostility towards her, the university wanted not only to please its foreign master. Here he followed popular opinion, which was extremely hostile to the Maid of Orleans. It is known that the university led the process against the Virgin and with undisguised satisfaction reported her condemnation to the English king.

The ashes of the fire in Rouen tarnish the prestige of the university. Having recaptured Paris, Charles VII, and after him Louis XI, are distrustful of the “collaborionist”, although the university stood on the side of their Gallican policy and strongly supported the pragmatic sanction.

In 1437, the king deprives the university of tax privileges and forces it to contribute to increased taxes in order to recapture Montero. In 1445, his judicial privilege was taken away from him, he became subject to the decisions of parliament. The king supports the reorganization of the university, carried out by the papal legate, Cardinal d'Etouteville, in 1452. In 1470, Louis XI obliges the masters and students from Burgundy to swear allegiance to him. Finally, in 1499, the university loses its right to strike. From now on, he is in the hands of the king.

What happened to the spirit of education during all these battles? Education has undergone a twofold evolution, which will allow us to better understand the relationship between scholasticism and humanism, to discern the nuances in this opposition, to trace the passing of the torch of reason in the transition from one period to another.

Output

So, we know that until the 13th century, when the formation of universities began, the schools were: monastic (at abbeys), episcopal (at cathedrals), and court (“palacium”). Schools attached to monasteries and abbeys during the period of the barbarian invasions were something of a refuge and repositories of monuments of classical culture, places of making lists; Episcopal schools were the site of predominantly elementary education. However, court life brought the greatest revival into cultural life. So, the director of one of these schools was Alcuin of York (730-804), adviser to King Charlemagne on culture and education. A three-stage training was organized:

reading, writing, elementary concepts of vernacular Latin, a general understanding of the Bible and liturgical texts;

the study of the seven liberal arts (first the trio of grammar, rhetoric and dialectics, then the quartet of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music;

in-depth study of Scripture.

Alcuin boldly formulated the spirit of his innovations: “So new Athens will grow on the land of the Franks, even more brilliant than in antiquity, for our Athens is fertilized by Christ’s teaching, and therefore will surpass the Academy in wisdom.” * 13

Whether he was fully capable of realizing his program or not, his merit in writing and preparing textbooks on each of the seven liberal arts is beyond any doubt.

Only Scot Eriugena restored dialectics and philosophy in the second generation in their rights through the inclusion of liberal arts in the context of theology. From forms of erudition, they turned into a tool for research, comprehension and development of Christian truths in general. In this sense, the term “first scholasticism” is acceptable, delineating the period from Scotus Eriugena to Anselm, from the philosophers of the Sharts and St. Victor schools to Abelard.

University of Paris

So the seven liberal arts were included in the context of theology. Theology has separated itself into a separate faculty of the University of Paris. The University of Paris is the largest university of the Middle Ages. The university is a united corporation of masters and students. The University of Paris had a faculty of theology and arts, with the latter serving as a preparation for the former. The universal language is Latin. In the 13th century, he played an important role in politics. The second name is Sorbonne.

In 1970 it was reorganized into an independent network of universities. By 1985, there were 230 thousand students.

Footnotes

*1 - Encyclopedia: "World History". Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksyonova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 350

*2 - Encyclopedia: "World History." Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksyonova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 351

*3 - Encyclopedia: "World History". Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksyonova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 351

*4 - Western philosophy. "From the origins to the present: the Middle Ages." Giovanni Reale and Dario Antiseri. LLP TK "Petropolis" St. Petersburg 1995. Page 87

*5 - Encyclopedia: "World History". Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksyonova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 352

*6 - Encyclopedia: "World History". Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksyonova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 352

*7 - Encyclopedia: "World History". Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksyonova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 352

*8 - "History of Medieval Philosophy". Frederick Copston. "Enigma" Moscow 1997. Page 182

*9 - "History of Medieval Philosophy". Frederick Copston. "Enigma" Moscow 1997. Page 183

*10 - "History of Medieval Philosophy". Frederick Copston. "Enigma" Moscow 1997. Page 187-188

*11 - "Intellectuals in the Middle Ages". Jacques Le Goff. Allergo - Press. Dolgoprudny 1997. Page 185

*12 - "Intellectuals in the Middle Ages". Jacques Le Goff. Allergo - Press. Dolgoprudny 1997. Page 186

*13 - Western philosophy. "From the origins to the present: the Middle Ages." Giovanni Reale and Dario Antiseri. LLP TK "Petropolis" St. Petersburg 1995. Page 87

Bibliography

Encyclopedia: "World History". Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksyonova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997.

Western philosophy. "From the origins to the present: the Middle Ages." Giovanni Reale and Dario Antiseri. LLP TK "Petropolis" St. Petersburg 1995.

"History of Medieval Philosophy". Frederick Copston. "Enigma" Moscow 1997.

"Intellectuals in the Middle Ages". Jacques Le Goff. Allergo - Press. Dolgoprudny 1997.

"History of the Middle Ages" A. Ya. Gurevich, D. E. Kharitonovich. Moscow, INTERPRAX 1995

Encyclopedia: "From the history of human society." Volume 8. Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR. Publishing house "Enlightenment" Moscow 1967

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Moscow "Big Encyclopedia". Ch. Editor A. M. Prokhorov. Moscow 1989.

The first universities in Western Europe appeared precisely in the classical Middle Ages. So, at the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. Universities were opened in Paris, Oxford, Cambridge and other European cities. Universities then were the most important and often the only source of information. The power of universities and university science was exceptionally strong. In this regard, in the XIV-XV centuries. the University of Paris stood out especially. It is significant that among his students there were completely grown-up people and even old people: everyone came to exchange opinions and get acquainted with new ideas.

University science - scholasticism - is formed in the XI century. Its most important feature was boundless faith in the power of reason in the process of knowing the world. In the course of time, however, scholasticism becomes more and more dogma. Its provisions are considered infallible and final. In the XIV-XV centuries. scholasticism, which used only logic and denied experiments, becomes an obvious brake on the development of natural science in Western Europe. Almost all departments in European universities were then occupied by monks of the Dominican and Franciscan orders, and the usual topics of disputes and scientific papers were: “Why did Adam eat an apple in paradise and not a pear? and "How many angels can fit on the point of a needle?".

The whole system of university education had a very strong influence on the formation of Western European civilization. Universities contributed to the progress in scientific thought, the growth of public consciousness and the growth of individual freedom. Masters and students, moving from city to city, from university to university, which was a constant practice, carried out cultural exchange between countries. National achievements immediately became known in other European countries. Thus, the "Decameron" by the Italian Javanni Boccaccio was quickly translated into all the languages ​​​​of Europe, it was read and known everywhere. The beginning of book printing in 1453 also contributed to the formation of Western European culture. Johannes Gutenberg, who lived in Germany, is considered the first printer.

FERDINAND AND ISABELLA

Europe is the beautiful face of the world: important in Spain, handsome in England, playful in France, reasonable in Italy, ruddy in Germany. » These words belong to the Spanish writer Baltasar Gracian, who lived in the 17th century. However, they are true today, and even more so at the end of the 15th century - when the forehead of Spain acquired this significant importance.

Isabella, daughter of King Juan II of Castile, as often happened among the crowned heads of Europe, was intended to be the wife of the Portuguese monarch Alfonso V. There were other contenders for her hand and heart, but. The 18-year-old princess made a daring challenge to tradition and court etiquette. Few chivalric novels of that era could match the poignancy and unpredictability of the plot with the story of her marriage.

Renaissance, Florence, Medici - three words, inextricably linked. The Renaissance is the time of the brilliant flowering of culture, which came in Europe after the long bloody troubles of the early Middle Ages. Florence is a city-republic that has become one of the centers of the Renaissance. The Medici family is a famous Florentine family, many of whose members were typical people of the new time - talented, enterprising, cruel, inspired, like all true Florentines, by the ideas of freedom and devotion to the motherland.

Woolen fabrics made in Florentine factories are sold in many cities of Europe, Asia and Africa. Enterprising city merchants found shopping centers around the world. No wonder Pope Boniface VIII said with irony that the Florentines, like earth, water, air and fire, are the basis of the universe.

medieval universities

The goal of science and education was the same as in ancient Greece, but was not the concern of private people, but was proclaimed a universal and mandatory task. The care of the soul was carried out not independently, but under the control of the church.

The most characteristic form of cognitive organization has become a university - a corporation, a community of people of learning. The first universities appeared in the XII century. They were created to bring order, as there were often skirmishes between the townspeople and the arriving students.

Organizational structure of the university. Education was not divided into disciplines. Among the general education faculties were the faculties of law, medicine, liberal arts, but the main one was the faculty of theology. Here theology is the science of Holy Scripture, attempts to formalize the conversation about God and the other for the purpose of definition, determination. At the University of Paris, the term of study was 8 years. The medieval university was similar to a professional workshop, nations stood out. Education began with a long apprenticeship, the exam was held in the form of a public debate, a successful performance at which was admission to lecturing. Education at the university was free, but he himself embodied poverty; usually the university was located at the monastery. New knowledge was not developed in medieval universities. The purpose of education was to streamline, preserve and transfer existing knowledge.

University management. There was no single system of funding, but there were sponsors who represented rival ecclesiastical and royal authorities. State power began to establish universities in the 14th and 15th centuries, before only the church was engaged in this. The support of the university was carried out not in the form of salaries, but in the form of gifts, sometimes scholarships, and not necessarily money: for example, libraries were presented as gifts. Tariffs were one source of funding. In the 16th century, the paid position of royal lecturer appeared. The medieval university is a self-governing organization; Each faculty has its own seal. But this right was achieved gradually and not always completely. Bull Gregory IX of 1231 established the subordination of the University of Paris only to the church, in particular, only to the ecclesiastical court.

Sources: www.bibliotekar.ru, murzim.ru, otherreferats.allbest.ru, lects.ru, revolution.allbest.ru

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It is customary to start the history of universities from the 12th century and associate it with the Western European tradition. However, many experts point out that the first educational institution, which fully corresponds to the university status, arose earlier. This so-called Magnavrian School, or Constantinople University, which appeared in the middle of the 9th century and operated until the capture of Constantinople by the Turks.

It was founded by the Byzantine regent of the Byzantine throne Vanda and the scientist Leo the Mathematician on the basis of an even earlier school. The main academic disciplines there were philosophy, rhetoric, medicine and jurisprudence. However, the history of this educational institution ends in 1453. At that moment in Western Europe there already existed most of those universities that are still operating today.

Initially, Western European universities were not directly related to education and were communities of teachers and students, masters and scholars, bound by mutual oath. In their structure, they resembled urban communes, religious brotherhoods, craft and merchant guilds.

These educational corporations were called studium generale ("general school"), which separated and distinguished them from studium particulare ("local school"). The "Universal School" had the right to award degrees that were recognized by universities around the world. The high status of such schools was guaranteed, first of all, by the authority and support of the head of the Pope, as well as the patronage of the royal and imperial authorities. Educational corporations were independent of local secular and spiritual authorities. The right to teach was claimed directly by the Pope.

Over time, the name "studium generale" was replaced by the name "universitas", which in Latin means "collection, community." The medieval university was the "keeper of knowledge", scientific research was not among its tasks. The learning process consisted mainly of lectures and debates, verbal fights were very popular.

Gradually, a special university culture was formed, which had a great influence on the further development of culture as a whole. Universities have spread all over the world.

We invite you to plunge into history and learn more about what the oldest universities were like.

University of Bologna

Year of foundation - 1088

The prerequisites for the creation of the University of Bologna appeared as early as 1000, when the traditions of studying Roman law began to revive. He laid the foundations for deep study of lawIrnerius, one of the first teachers and commentators on the code of laws of Justinian, one of the founders of the Western European study of Roman law. In 1088, he opened his public lectures - from that moment on, the history of the University of Bologna is being conducted.

However, at that time the university in the modern sense of the word did not yet exist. Professors gave lectures at their homes, in rented premises, and more often in city squares. The popularity and fame of the Bologna professors was due to the scientific approach to teaching and the patronage of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. In 1154 he officially recognized the university.

From all over Europe flocked here and formed their own corporations. The meeting of all student corporations under a common statute constituted the University of Bologna by the end of the 12th century.

Interesting Facts

A distinctive feature of the University of Bologna is that it was originally created not as a corporation of professors (universitas magistrorum), to whom the students were supposed to obey, but as a corporation of students (universitas scholarium). Students themselves elected the rector, leaders and lecturers.

Another feature of the University of Bologna is that it was a center for the studyjurisprudence. The study of Roman law, which laid the foundation for the university, and canon law, introduced into the program from the 12th century, remained the main subjects of university teaching.

Throughout the 13th century, famous professors lectured here on philosophy and the liberal arts, in addition to jurisprudence, sciences such as philosophy, Latin and Greek literature, and then medicine began to flourish in Bologna.

However, only in 1565 In the same year, the university acquired its own premises, and all previously disparate schools and corporations were united under one roof. The property of the University of Bologna is its library, founded in 1605 by Professor Aldrovandi. It contains about 250 thousand books and 1350 periodicals.

Famous graduates

Among those who studied at the University of Bologna were the poets Francesco Petrarca and Dante Alighieri, the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, Pope Alexander VI, the physician and occultist Paracelsus, as well as the writer Umberto Eco and the Prime Minister of Italy in 1996-1998 and 2006-2008. Romano Prodi.

The current state of affairs

Today, the University of Bologna is one of the top 200 universities in the world and is not only the oldest, but also the second largest university in Italy. About one hundred thousand students study here at 23 faculties, the most famous of which is, of course, the Faculty of Law.

Oxford University

Year of foundation - 1096 or 1167

The exact date of the founding of the university is unknown, there is evidence that teaching there has been going on since1096 of the year. There is a point of view that the university was created in1117 year English clergywho decided to educate their clergy. Another point of reference is1167 the year when Henry IIforbade English students to enter the University of Paris, in connection with which many were forced to return to Foggy Albion and settle in Oxford. In 1188, the historian,Gerald of Wales , held the first public reading before a meeting of dons at Oxford. In 1190, the first international student came here, and the tradition of international scientific relations of the university was laid.

Interesting Facts

Today, to enter Oxford, you need to have an impressive amount of money to pay for tuition and accommodation, and in the Middle Ages, only clergymen studied at the university, who were often very poor.

Oxford is a real student city. It includes38 colleges.The oldest of them - Merton (1260) and Balliol (1264) - were named after their founders (John Balliol and Walter de Merton). The most beautiful and largest college is Christ Church College, and the most luxurious is Magdalen College, located on the banks of the Cherwell River.

The university also includes7 hostels, which are closed educational institutions belonging to various religious orders that do not have college status.

Oxford cherishes itstraditions. For example, when entering a university, each student must undergo a rite of matriculation, which consists in pronouncing the student's oath in Latin in front of the chancellors of the university. At graduation, the student also takes an oath in Latin and changes his old robe for a new one corresponding to his degree. Both ceremonies are held at the Sheldonian Theatre, built in the 17th century by famed British architect Christopher Wren.

Famous graduates

Theologian and first Bible translator into Middle English John Wycliffe, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, Protestant reformer and Bible translator William Tyndale, philosopher John Locke, Cardinal John Henry Newman, also known as Blessed John Henry Newman in the Catholic Church, studied at Oxford; taught by Erasmus of Rotterdam and the philosopher and naturalist Roger Bacon. Tor were educated here 40 Nobel laureates, 25 British prime ministers, 6 kings, about 50 Olympic medalists, about 20 managers of the 100 largest businesses in the world (FTSE 100), thousands of leading politicians, scientists, people of literature and art. Such famous people as Margaret Thatcher, Lewis Carroll, John Tolkien, Clive Staple Lewis, Tony Blair, Felix Yusupov and many others studied and taught here. Russian writers also received honorary degrees from the university: Vasily Zhukovsky, Ivan Turgenev, Konstantin Chukovsky, Anna Akhmatova and Joseph Brodsky.

The current state of affairs

Today, Oxford is considered one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Although education in it is paid and costs a lot, the university has a flexible system of various kinds of grants and scholarships, partially or fully covering the cost of education. Now 18.5 thousand students study at Oxford, about a quarter of them are foreigners. The staff of Oxford teachers is almost 4 thousand people, of which 70 are members of the Royal Society, more than 100 are members of the British Academy. Oxford also uses a tutoring system, which means that each student is given personal care by a specialist in the chosen field.

The main areas of training are humanitarian, mathematical, physical, social sciences, medicine, life and environmental sciences.

Cambridge university

Year of foundation - 1218

The existence of a school at the cathedral in the city of Salamanca, near Madrid, is mentioned as early as 1130. But the official date for counting the history of one of the oldest universities in Europe is 1218, when the kingAlphonse IXdecreed the creation of the "Studium Generale" or "general school" in Salamanca, uniting a network of schools specialized in the study of Holy Scripture and canon law. Even then, there were departments of canon and civil law, medicine, logic, grammar and music.

Under King Alfonso X, the institution changed from a "general school" to a "university". In 1255, Pope Alexander IV recognized the university status of Salamanca, and also granted the university the right to its own press, and for its graduates approved the right to teach at all existing universities.

Interesting Facts

The University of Salamanca was the first in Europe to receive the status of a "university". It also became the first European educational institution withown public library.

It was at the University of Salaman that theTransatlantic project of Christopher Columbus.Here, after the discovery of America, the rights of the local population were fully recognized.

The university remained papal until May 21, 1852, when the ecclesiastical faculties were abolished in it.

The University of Salamanca has 16 faculties and 10 university centers. Some of the campuses are located in the historical center, some in the modern part of the city, so it seems that only students live in the city.

Famous graduates

It is interesting what different people studied at the University of Salamanca: Hernán Cortes, the Spanish conquistador who conquered Mexico and destroyed the statehood of the Aztecs, and Francisco de Vitoria, one of the founders of international law, who was the first to defend the Indians. The founder of the Jesuit order, Ignacio Loyola, also studied science here, while the extremely “unreliable” philosopher and poet-mystic Luis de Leon was a doctor of theology. It was while teaching at the University of Salaman that Antonio Nebrija, professor of rhetoric and author of the world's first grammar of the "folk" Romance language, easily received the highest blessing for the publication of his work.

The current state of affairs

Today the University of Salamanca is the best place to study Spanish Philology and Latin America. It is the teachers from this university that create and check the DELE exams (exams in Spanish for foreigners). The University unites a number of scientific centers: the Center for Multimedia Technologies, the Center for the Study of Behavioral Responses and the Center for Linguistic Studies.

The university also regularly hosts symposiums and conferences on a variety of topics - from Translation Theory to Cardiology. In a separate building on three floors there are nine scientific laboratories equipped with the latest technology. The university has its own radio and television.

About 30 thousand students study here.

University of Padua

Year of foundation - presumably 1222

If the history of Cambridge is closely intertwined with Oxford, then the University of Padua was founded in 1222.teachers and studentswho left the University of Bologna due to a conflict with the authorities. From 1339 to 1813, the university was divided into two parts - Universitas Iuristarum, where they taught law and theology, and Universitas Artistarum, where they studied philosophy, astronomy, dialectics, grammar, medicine, and rhetoric.

Interesting Facts

The University of Padua is located inpalace del bo, which means in Venetian "bull" or "ox" (before there were butcher shops nearby). However, he moved here only at the end of the 15th century, and earlier the hotel “Under the Sign of the Ox” was located in the building, and the image of a bull’s head flaunted on the doors.

At the end of the 16th century, the first university in Europe was built at the university.Anatomical theater. It looked like the Colosseum. An operating table was located in the center, on which demonstrative autopsies were performed. He was surrounded by ranks for spectators, and not only for teachers and medical students, but also for city onlookers. To get to the "performance", you had to pay a certain fee. Music was playing in the hall, drinks were offered to the guests. Since such procedures were officially prohibited at that time, the university management carefully monitored security. The demonstration room was directly under the dissecting table, and if there was a chance that the Inquisition might turn up, he immediately went down to the Colosseum.

In 1545 at the University of Padua was createdBotanical Garden.He is the second oldest after Pisa, but claims to be the oldest continuously operating, as his competitor has repeatedly moved from place to place.

Famous graduates

Such figures of the Renaissance and early modern times as Pico della Mirandola, Nicholas of Cusa, Copernicus, one of the founders of the Italian literary language Pietro Bembo, Torquato Tasso, Galileo, Vesalius, the Belarusian first printer Francis Skorina studied or worked at the University of Padua. In 1678, the first woman to receive a PhD was Elena Cornaro Piscopia. At the beginning of the 18th century, a Russian scientist, Pyotr Vasilievich Postnikov, was a doctor of medicine and philosophy at the University of Padua.

The current state of affairs

Today, 65 thousand students study at the university in 13 faculties. Among them are such as the Faculty of Humanities and Philosophy, Engineering, Law, Psychology, Physics and Mathematics, Natural Sciences, Medical and Surgical and others.

The first higher schools in Western Europe appeared in Italy. The oldest among them Salerno Medical School, the basis of which is attributed to the IX century. The school in Salerno (near Naples) had a secular character and continued the best traditions of ancient medicine.
Her fame was so great that even after the appearance of schools of lawyers and philosophers in Salerno, the city continued to be called civitas hippocratica(city of Hippocrates).

By order of the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (1212-1250), she - the only one in the country - was given the right to confer the title of doctor, without a license from this school it was forbidden to practice medicine.

In 1213 the Salerno school was transformed into a university. Education in Salerno lasted five years, followed by a mandatory medical practice for one year. From all over Europe, those suffering from healing and knowledge flocked to Salerno.

The Salerno school had a great positive impact on the medicine of medieval Europe. It was the center from which ideas far from scholasticism spread. The best work of the Salerno Medical School in its entire thousand-year history was a short poem "Salerno code of health" ("Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum"). Its author is Arnold of Villanova (Arnaldo de Villanova, 1235-1311), an illustrious scientist, physician and chemist of the Middle Ages, later a master of the University of Montpellier.

The poem is dedicated to dietetics and disease prevention. It also provides some information about the structure of the human body (for example, the number of bones, teeth, and large blood vessels). In colorful form, Arnold described four temperaments in people.
The work of Arnold of Villanova, first published in 1480, was translated into many European languages ​​and reprinted more than 300 times.

The Emergence of Universities in Medieval Europe

In the Middle Ages, communities of people of the same profession (merchants, artisans, etc.) were called university(lat. set). By analogy with them, corporations of teachers and students began to be called this way - universitas magistrourn et scolarium.
Thus the term university was born. The formation of universities in medieval Western Europe is closely connected with the growth of cities, the development of crafts and trade, the needs of economic life and culture.

In 1158 the legal school in Bologna (Italy) received the status of a university. Then the university status was given to schools in Oxford and Cambridge (Britain, 1209), Paris (France, 1215), Salamanca (Spain, 1218), Padua (Italy, 1222), Naples (Italy, 1224), Montpellier (France, 1289) , Lisbon (Portugal, 1290), Prague (Czech Republic, 1348), Krakow (Poland, 1364), Vienna (Austria, 1365), Heidelberg (Germany, 1386) (Fig. 81), Cologne (Germany, 1388), Leipzig ( Germany, 1409) and others.

As a rule, medieval universities had four faculties: one preparatory and three main ones. Term faculty(lat. facultas- ability, skill, talent) was introduced in 1232 by Pope Gregory IX to designate various specialties at the University of Paris, opened by church authorities, who thus sought to establish their influence on the training of scientists.

How the medieval university was organized

Mandatory for all students was the preparatory (or artistic) faculty (from Latin artes - arts), where seven liberal arts were taught ( septem artes liberales).
After mastering the program trivium(grammar, rhetoric, dialectic) and passing the relevant exams, the student was awarded the degree of Bachelor of Arts.
After taking the course quadrivium(arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory) the student received a master of arts degree and the right to continue his studies at one of the main faculties:
theological, medical or legal, after which the student was awarded a master's (doctoral) degree in accordance with the profile of the faculty.

The word student comes from the Latin students- to study. Students were called all university students who; as a rule, they were mature people with a very high position in society: archdeacons, prelates, secular feudal lords. The terms of study and the age of students were usually not limited. Medieval universities were multinational educational institutions, where students united in fraternities.

The number of students was small and rarely exceeded 10 within one specialty. dean(from lat. decem - ten). The head of the university was rector magnificis-simus(lat. rector - manager).
Both of these posts were held by persons who had a high spiritual dignity. In ecclesiastical universities, they were appointed and paid by ecclesiastical authorities, and in universities founded by decree of the king, by royal authority.

The term professor (lat. professor- an expert publicly announced by the teacher) came from ancient Rome. In the medieval universities of Europe (from about the 15th-16th centuries), professors began to be called teachers-masters (lat. magistri) and doctors (lag. doctores).

Studying at a medieval university

As already noted, the language of medieval scholarship in Western Europe was Latin. The book in the Middle Ages was a rarity and was very expensive. Its sheets were made of parchment - animal skin treated in a special way.
Monk scribes worked on each book for several years. The most valuable and rare books were attached by chains to the shelves or pulpit. Suffice it to say that in the XV century. the medical faculty of the University of Paris had only 12 books.

Teaching in medieval universities was dogmatic. Church-reviewed works by Galen, Hippocrates, and Ibn Sina were memorized.
Practical classes, as a rule, were not.

The students' ideas about the human structure were very superficial. The Church forbade the "shedding of blood" and the dissection of human corpses.

The first autopsies of the dead in Western Europe began to be carried out in the most progressive universities (Salerno and Montpellier) with the special permission of the monarchs only in the XIII-XIV centuries.
So, in 1238, Frederick II allowed the Faculty of Medicine in Salerno to open one (!) corpse in five years. In 1376, Louis, Duke of Anjou and ruler of Languedoc, ordered his court to give the University of Montpellier one corpse a year.

The University of Montpellier was one of the most progressive in medieval Europe. Evidence of this is the mandatory medical practice outside the city.
So, in 1240, students were certified only after working in a hospital for six months, in 1309 an 8-month practice outside Montpellier was already required. There is also evidence that the students of Montpellier already in the XIII century. attended the operations of their master teachers and learned by "listening and seeing".

However, in the vast majority of medieval universities, surgery was not taught and was not included in the number of medical disciplines. Bath attendants, barbers and surgeons, who did not have a university education and were not recognized as doctors, were engaged in it. The first changes in attitude to surgery were outlined after the distribution of translations of Arabic manuscripts in Western Europe, as well as in connection with the Crusades.

The first textbook on anatomy in Western Europe was compiled in 1316 by the master of the University of Bologna Mondino de Luzzi(Mondino de Luzzi, 1275-1326). His work was based on autopsies of only two corpses, which, in view of the extreme rarity of this event, were carried out very carefully, over several weeks.
Much of this book is borrowed from Galen's On the Purpose of the Parts of the Human Body. According to the textbook Mondino de Luzzi studied anatomy Andreas Vesalius, who later became the founder of scientific anatomy.

One of the outstanding students of the universities in Bologna and Montpellier was Guy de Chauliac(Guy de Chauliac, c. 1300-1368). His compilation work Collectorium artis chirurgicalis medicinae("Review of the Surgical Art of Medicine", 1363) is a surgical encyclopedia of the time. Until the 17th century, it was the most widely used surgical textbook in Western Europe.

However, in general, medieval science and education in Western Europe were scholastic in nature. The cult of quotations, mechanical memorization of scientific texts, disregard for practical experience dominated:

Disputes are conducted with words, Systems are created from words, We must trust words, One cannot change an iota in words ... Goethe. "Faust"

Famous French cartoonist Honore Daumier(1808-1879) superbly presented the furious argument of scholastic doctors: while each of them, turning his back on the patient, proves the correctness of his quote, death takes the patient away. So it was in reality - the medieval scholastic medicine of Western Europe in many respects stood with its back to the sick.

Compilation based on the book: T.S. Sorokina, "History of Medicine"

After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476, the European Middle Ages began, which determined the development of education for a long time. The boundaries of this era are blurred, individual for each country. The Middle Ages are usually divided into the early Middle Ages (V-XI centuries), developed (XI-XIII centuries), later (XIII-XV centuries) and the Renaissance (XV-XVII centuries). How have schools and universities changed in 16 centuries?

In the early Middle Ages, schools of the ancient type dominated, teaching mainly the clergy. Later, schools of elementary education appeared (taught children of seven to ten years old) and large schools (for children over ten years old).

In the upbringing and education in the Middle Ages, pagan, ancient and Christian traditions intertwined. Church schools occupied a special place in the education system. Pedagogical thought in the Middle Ages was practically absent, replaced by the postulates of the church, religious education. There were two types of church educational institutions: cathedral (cathedral) and monastic schools.

The former trained clerics, but they also prepared them for secular activities. They provided a broader education than the monastic schools. The program of cathedral schools included reading, writing, grammar, counting, church singing. During the late Middle Ages, some cathedral schools taught the subjects of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics) or quadrivium knowledge (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music). At the end of the XII century. the cathedral schools were transformed into public schools and later into universities.

Monastic schools were divided into three main types: pastoral-monastic (prepared the clergy for church parish service), dormitory schools at monasteries (prepared boys to become monks) and schools for literacy and church writing for boys who did not intend to stay at the church or monastery. The study was theological in nature with some secular elements. The cruel punishment of children was considered natural and charitable. Vacations and physical education were virtually absent.

In addition to the Christian tradition, knightly culture had a huge impact on the education system. The feudal lords instilled in their children the ideal of chivalrous upbringing, which included sacrifice, obedience and, at the same time, personal freedom. Parallel to the chivalrous ideal, there was a program of "seven chivalrous virtues": riding, swimming, wielding a spear, fencing, hunting, playing chess, writing poetry, and playing musical instruments.

The education of women remained purely domestic. The daughters of feudal lords were brought up in the family under the supervision of mothers and special women. Girls were often taught to read and write by chaplains and monks. There was a widespread practice of sending girls from noble families for education in convents, where they taught Latin, introduced them to the Bible, and instilled noble manners. Girls from the underprivileged classes were at best taught housekeeping, needlework and the basics of the Bible.

In the late Middle Ages, guild and city schools became widespread. This was primarily due to the increased role of cities. Guild schools, maintained at the expense of artisans, provided general education. City schools were born out of guild schools. Under the supervision of the church, they were not for long. The head of the institution was called the rector, and teachers very often had the status of "vagrants". The fact is that the school hired a teacher for a certain period, so after some time he was forced to look for a new place. The program included the following subjects: Latin, arithmetic, office work, geometry, technology, natural sciences.

Often, schools in Central Europe were created by some kind of order (for example, the city schools of the Jesuits during the Renaissance). The educational institutions of this order were distinguished by the fact that they taught the color of the nobility. The order was characterized by the strictest discipline, the unquestioning obedience of the younger to the elder. At the request of the elder, the Jesuit had to lie, slander, kill ... The Jesuits sought to grow their own "future" in order to then influence political and social life.

At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. the first universities appeared. The word "university", derived from the Latin "university", "totality", "set", meant a corporation of teachers and students. The medieval university included the following faculties: law, medicine, theology, philosophy. However, education began with a special, preparatory, faculty, where the famous "seven liberal arts" were taught. And since the Latin for art is "artes", the faculty was called artistic. Teaching was in Latin.

The word "lecture" means reading. The medieval professor actually read the book, sometimes interrupting the lecture with explanations. Thousands of people flocked to the cities where the famous scientist, professor came. In fact, this is how universities were formed. In the small town of Bologna, where at the turn of the XI-XII centuries. Irnerius, a connoisseur of Roman law, appeared, a school of legal knowledge arose, which turned into the University of Bologna. Similarly, another Italian city, Salerno, became famous as the main university center of medical science. The University of Paris, founded in the 12th century, was recognized as the main center of theology.

In order to become a university, an institution needed to receive a papal bull (decree) on its creation. With such a bull, the Pope took the school out of the control of secular and local church authorities and legitimized the existence of the university. The rights of the educational institution were confirmed by privileges - special documents signed by popes or reigning persons. Privileges consolidated university autonomy (its own court, administration, as well as the right to grant academic degrees), freed students from military service. Professors, students and employees of the educational institution were not subordinate to the city authorities, but exclusively to the elected rector of the university and the elected deans of the faculties. If a student committed some misconduct, the city authorities could only ask the university leaders to judge and punish the offender.

Students were usually divided into nations, compatriots, denoting associations of students from different regions. They could rent apartments, but many lived in colleges (colleges). These colleges were usually formed according to nations, representatives of one community lived in one college.

The student's duties included attending lectures: obligatory daily (ordinary) and repeated evening lectures. Disputes were an important feature of the universities of that era. The teacher (usually a master or a licentiate) assigned a topic. His assistant, a bachelor, led the discussion, that is, he answered questions and commented on the speeches. If necessary, the master came to the aid of the bachelor. Once or twice a year, debates were held “about anything” (without a strictly defined topic). In this case, burning scientific and worldview problems were often discussed. The participants in the disputes behaved very freely, interrupting the speaker with whistles and shouts.

As a rule, a great career awaited a university graduate. On the one hand, universities actively cooperated with the church. On the other hand, along with the gradual expansion of the administrative apparatuses of various feudal lords and cities, the need for literate and educated people increased. Yesterday's students became scribes, notaries, judges, lawyers, prosecutors.

The contingent of students was the most diverse - most came from noble citizens, but even the children of peasants could receive a scholarship and education. There were many monks and clerics. It was in the Middle Ages that the concept of a wandering eternal student, the vagant, appeared. They moved from one university to another in order to obtain knowledge from various sources. The poetry of the Vagantes is known all over the world, it is a combination of folklore and Latin traditions. Its main themes are love, death, fun, revelry, education. The real names of the authors are unknown: as a rule, most of them preferred to remain incognito in order to avoid clashes with representatives of the Inquisition.

Sapozhnikova Marina