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Biography of Herodotus

Origin of Herodotus

The father of history, Herodotus, was born between the first and second Persian wars (490–480 BC), and according to one piece of information, although not completely reliable, in 484 BC. His birthplace was Halicarnassus, Dorian colony on the coast of Caria. This city, located on the seashore and possessing an excellent port, conducted significant trade and enjoyed sufficient prosperity. It was founded by the Dorians from Troezen, with whom the Achaeans mixed, and in all likelihood also the Ionians, since before the Dorian migration Troezen was inhabited by the Ionians, and in ancient times, together with Kos, Cnidus and the Rhodian cities of Lindus, Ialis and Camir, was part of into the Dorian union of cities, the so-called Doric Hexapolis (Έξάπολις;). But subsequently Halicarnassus was excluded from this union, as Herodotus says, because one of the citizens, having received a tripod as a reward at the union games, did not place it, as custom required, in the temple of Apollo, but took it to his home. This insignificant circumstance served, of course, only as an external reason for the exclusion of Halicarnassus from the union; the real reason was more important. The break was due to the fact that Halicarnassus, due to the influx of Ionians from neighboring areas, lost its original Doric character; In the middle of the 5th century, the Ionic dialect, as can be seen from one inscription, was the official language in Halicarnassus. And Herodotus himself, who by origin should be considered a Doryan, is in his entire character more Ionian than Doryan. After the exclusion of Halicarnassus from the Doric union, the time of which cannot be determined with precision, Halicarnassus, like other Greek cities in Asia Minor, was under the rule of the Lydians, and then under the rule of the Persians. The Persians usually used their dominance over Greek cities in such a way that they installed the most prominent citizens there as tyrants, and the latter ruled the cities at their own will. So, at the time when Herodotus was born, the ruler of Halicarnassus and the neighboring small islands - Kos, Nisir and Kalidna, under the supreme power of the Persians, was Artemisia, an intelligent and courageous woman who, with five ships, accompanied Xerxes on his campaign against Greece and gave him a lot practical advice, and in the Battle of Salamis she was so distinguished by her determination that the king exclaimed in surprise: “Women have become men, and men have become women!” Herodotus in his history so praises the speeches and words of this woman that we can conclude that in his youth he willingly listened to stories about her exploits. She probably treated her subjects very kindly and kindly.

Bust of Herodotus. National Museum of Rome. Beginning of the 4th century BC

Herodotus belonged to a noble and, in all likelihood, ancient aristocratic Dorian family. His father's name was Lix, his mother's name was Drio (or Rio), his brother's name was Theodore. The epic poet Paniasis, whom the ancients glorify as the successful re-establisher of an almost forgotten epic type of poetry, was a close relative of Herodotus - either his uncle (mother's brother), or the son of his father's brother, and it is very likely that he, as an older relative, had considerable influence on the mental development of Herodotus. We know that the subjects that Paniasis dealt with were also of interest to Herodotus. Paniasis processed the myth of Hercules in the epic poem “Heraclea”, and chose the story of the Ionian migration to Asia as the plot of another poem. It was these Ionic legends that Herodotus was most interested in, and he was interested in the myths about Hercules and his cult to such an extent that he undertook a special trip to Tire to the famous sanctuary of the Phoenician Hercules (Melkart) in order to obtain correct information about the antiquity of the Hercules myth and his cult .

Historical events during the youth of Herodotus

There is no doubt that Herodotus, coming from a rich and noble family and, moreover, having a desire for science, received an extensive and comprehensive education in his youth; he reveals an excellent knowledge of Homer and other poets; he zealously studied his predecessors in historical studies - the logographers. Stories about the great world events that occurred in his early youth and affected his hometown were to have a deep and lasting influence on the mind of the growing youth. Something incredible happened. Herodotus heard about how the almighty, great king of Persia gathered his huge troops, including detachments of Asia Minor Greeks, and set out on a campaign to punish and conquer the European Greeks, but was completely defeated by this small, fragmented and, apparently, such a weak people, and covered with shame, in fear hastily fled back to his shocked kingdom. The thought that then involuntarily came to everyone’s mind and was expressed everywhere - the thought of God’s judgment striking the proud and daring, the frailty of everything human and the insignificance of earthly greatness - sank deeply into the young soul and remained the conviction of Herodotus for the rest of his life, as can be seen from his writings.

The joy and delight that seized all the Hellenes at that time echoed in the hearts of the Greeks of Asia Minor. When the fleet and army of their European compatriots appeared off the coast of Asia Minor, after the victories at Mycale and Eurymedon, then they too felt strength and decided to overthrow the long-standing yoke and join their brothers. Whether similar attempts were made in the homeland of Herodotus, in Halicarnassus, is unknown to us. Perhaps the smart Artemisia, loved and respected by her subjects, managed to deflect the approaching storm. At least her son Pisindelidas and after him, around 455, his son Lygdamidas were tyrants in Halicarnassus; but we do not know whether this tyranny was inherited continuously. Depending on who retained power on the Asia Minor coast - the Athenian union or the Persians, freedom or slavery reigned in the cities, and either tyrants were expelled, or Persian rulers - satraps - were reappointed. So Lygdamidas relied on the help of the Persians, without which he could not have taken possession of the city against the will of noble and powerful families. Many of the latter fled from the tyrant's persecution; including the family of Herodotus, having left the city, found shelter on the island of Samos. Here, together with other fugitives and, probably, with the help of the Samians, who bravely defended Greek freedom on the Asia Minor coast, the relatives of Herodotus began to take care of the liberation of their hometown. During one of these attempts, Herodotus's old friend and relative Paniasis fell into the hands of Lygdamidas, who ordered his execution. Finally, in 449, when, as a result of the campaign Kimona to the island of Cyprus, the cause of Greek freedom was again victorious, Herodotus and his comrades succeeded in expelling the tyrant from Halicarnassus.

Herodotus. Encyclopedia Project

Relocation of Herodotus to Thurii

However, Herodotus did not stay long in his hometown: the reason for his departure from there was, in all likelihood, political strife. When, in 444, in Lucania (in Southern Italy), not far from the city of Sybaris destroyed by the Crotonians, the descendants of the Sybarites founded a new city, Thurii, inviting all Greeks to participate in its settlement without distinction of tribes on equal rights, then from Athens, at the suggestion Pericles, the colonists went there under the leadership of a statesman and interpreter of oracles, Lampon, a friend of Pericles. The desire to obtain land in this beautiful country induced many Greeks to join in this enterprise; Among the colonists were Herodotus and the famous orator Lysias with two brothers. Since then, the Furies became the home of Herodotus, so that the ancients often call him not a Halicarnassian, but a Furian.

Herodotus and Athens during the time of Pericles

However, there is no need to assume that Herodotus went to Thurii in 444; this could happen later. In all likelihood, in the interval between his departure from Halicarnassus and his relocation to Thurii, he spent some time in the then center of the political and intellectual life of Greece - in Athens, where he subsequently visited many times. That Herodotus lived in Athens for quite a long time is proved by his knowledge of the state of affairs in Attica and the advantage he showed Athens to such an extent that envious opponents like Plutarch said that he was bribed by the Athenians. At a time when powerful Athens aroused strong hatred in the rest of Greece, Herodotus set out to show how this city became the savior of Greece during the Persian wars. Herodotus was, without a doubt, personally acquainted with the leader of Athenian politics, Pericles, and his family. In his historical work, he provides detailed information about the significance of the Alcmaeonid family, to which Pericles belonged on his mother’s side, and points out how successfully through the efforts of this family, which in the time of Herodotus did not enjoy popular favor, the tyranny of the Peisistratids was overthrown and Athenian freedom was strengthened. Since the information reported by Herodotus appears to have been borrowed in part from the family traditions of Pericles’ house, it can be assumed that the wonderful story about the matchmaking of Agarista, the daughter of the Sicyon tyrant Cleisthenes, the great-grandmother of Pericles (VI, 126–130), is a story that differs epic presentation - had as its source some poem belonging to the Alcmaeonids. Agarista married the Athenian Megacles, son of Alcmeon, and from this marriage Cleisthenes, later a famous legislator, and Hippocrates were born; the latter was the father of Agarista, wife of Xanthippus, mother of Pericles. Herodotus says that she once saw in a dream that a lion was born to her, and a few days later she gave birth to Pericles. This place, the only one where Herodotus mentions Pericles, shows how highly the historian valued the statesman. Herodotus was also personally acquainted with other prominent Athenians; Sophocles was his friend for many years.

Ancient statue of Herodotus in Bodrum (ancient Halicarnassus)

Travels of Herodotus

Herodotus in Asia Minor and Persia

A significant part of Herodotus’s great work consists of geographical and ethnographic information. He talks about events, but at the same time describes countries, morals, customs, civil and religious institutions - in a word, he retells everything wonderful about lands, peoples and cities. Before his resettlement in Thurii, Herodotus traveled a lot. Curiosity and at the same time the desire to collect more geographical and ethnographic material for the essay, which he conceived, apparently very early, prompted him to visit various countries of the then known world; Herodotus saw the most remote areas inhabited by the Greeks, and traveled through the entire Persian kingdom in various directions. On these journeys he did not encounter significant difficulties or dangers, and with sufficient wealth he did not need funds for travel. As a result of trade relations, the path to all the shores of the Mediterranean Sea was open to everyone; at the same time, as a result of the orders of the Persian king Darius, every citizen of the region subject to the Persians enjoyed much greater convenience and safety when traveling than a foreigner who wants to travel around this country in our time. In the time of Herodotus, royal military roads, protected by fortifications and guards and providing shelter to the traveler at every station, connected all provinces with the center of the state - Susa. A foreigner, although under the watchful supervision of the authorities, could travel along these roads calmly and everywhere he would find everything necessary for subsistence and recreation.

Herodotus often recalls his travels in his work, but only on occasion when, in support of his story, he refers to what he saw and heard on the spot, and does not report anything about the time and method of travel. Therefore, we are not able to accurately determine in what years and in what order he undertook his travels. In any case, he was in Persia at a time when his hometown of Halicarnassus was still under Persian rule, that is, before 449 BC; after the overthrow of Lygdamidas, which Herodotus himself assisted and which freed Halicarnassus from Persian rule, he would no longer dare to undertake a trip to the Persian kingdom. He visited Egypt at a time when this country was also still under the rule of the Persians, but after the revolt of Inar, which lasted from 460 to 455; Herodotus saw the battlefield at Papremis, where Inarus defeated Xerxes' brother Achaemenes. Therefore, the time of his trip to Egypt falls between 455 and 449 years. He had previously undertaken a journey to the provinces of Upper Asia, as can be concluded from one indication in his work.

Herodotus probably traveled to inner Asia along the royal road that led from Ephesus through Sardis to Susa; he describes the dimensions of this road, its length and its appearance in such detail that it must be assumed that he himself saw it (V, 52 et seq.). He traveled as far as Susa and from there visited the royal estate of Arderikka, located five miles from the city, where Darius settled the once captive inhabitants of Eretria (VI, 119). In Babylon, in which Herodotus was very interested in its history, wonderful buildings, customs and cult (I, 178 et seq.), he apparently stayed for quite a long time. Our traveler also saw Ecbatana, the capital Mussels, with a palace Deyoka; it is very likely that he was also at the ruins of Nineveh, the former capital of Assyria. Herodotus knew the coast of Asia Minor to Halys very well; therefore, it can be assumed that he visited these places many times.

Herodotus in Egypt

Herodotus examined the wonderland of Egypt with special attention. It seems that he arrived first at Kanob, a famous harbor at the mouth of the western branch of the Nile, and then visited various cities of lower Egypt: Naucratis, a privileged Greek trading post, Sais, the residence of the last Egyptian kings, where Herodotus was initiated into the mysteries of Osiris; Busiris, where the large temple of Isis was located, etc. He traveled to middle and upper Egypt during the flood of the Nile, as can be concluded from the clarity with which he describes the trip from Naucratis to Memphis. “When the Nile emerges from its banks,” says Herodotus (II, 97), only high cities are visible all around, like islands in the Aegean Sea, for everything else is hidden under water. As soon as a flood occurs, no one travels along the river, and all ships go through the water that has spilled on the plains. Going from Naucratis to Memphis at this time, you have to pass just past the pyramids (near Giza, northwest of Memphis). But the usual path goes to the top of the delta and to the city of Kerkasor,” etc. From the ancient city of the kings, Memphis, where Herodotus learned from the priests most of the information he reported about Egypt, he visited the pyramids located not far from there, of which the largest, the pyramid of Cheops, he measured it himself. He was also on the shores of the artificial Lake Merida, located 12 miles south of Memphis, near which there was a labyrinth, a large palace with 3,000 rooms, a building representing “superhuman labor” in size. Heading further up the Nile, Herodotus arrived in the city of Elephantine and thus reached the southern border of the Persian kingdom. However, he did not dare to cross this border, no matter how much he wanted to receive correct information about the sources of the Nile, since beyond this border a foreigner could no longer be confident in his safety. On the way back, Herodotus from Memphis went east, passed the canal of the Egyptian king Necho (Necho), laid from the Nile to the Gulf of the Arabian (Red) Sea, and reached the eastern border of Egypt - the city of Pelusium on the Mediterranean Sea. From there, along the coast, he reached Gaza, in Palestine, and here he probably boarded a ship and went to Tire to collect information about Hercules there.

Herodotus in the Black Sea region, his study of Scythia

In addition, Herodotus undertook a special journey to the Hellenic colony of Cyrene on the northern coast of Libya, and then to the Black Sea - to Pontus, the shores of which were dotted with Greek colonies and which, as a result, turned from “inhospitable” (Πόντος άξεινος) to “hospitable” ( Πόντος εΰξεινος - Pontus Euxine). Having entered Pontus through the Thracian Bosphorus, Herodotus headed to the west, wanting to go around the entire sea. Whether he traveled from the Bosporus to the mouth of the Istra (Danube) by land or by ship - this question remains unresolved; it is only known that on the way Herodotus visited the Greek colonies - Apollonia, Mesemvria and Istria, which lay at the mouth of the Istra. He considers the Ister River the greatest and most extensive of all rivers; The Ister “flows through the whole of Europe, and originates from the Celts” and has many tributaries, which are listed by Herodotus (IV, 47–50). To the north of the Ister, the Black Sea and the Caucasus there is a vast land of the Scythians, about which Herodotus especially tried to collect information during this journey. The Scythians were in active relations with the coastal Greek cities, and along numerous waterways they delivered the products of their rich country here. Many of them lived for commercial purposes in Greek cities, others brought goods from inland countries to the sea; Greek merchants traveled around the surrounding lands. Thus, Herodotus could easily, from questioning the Greeks and natives, obtain detailed information about the properties of this country, about the morals, customs and traditions of this wonderful people; sometimes he himself went for a short time to different areas, into the interior of the country. Apparently, Herodotus spent quite a long time in the flourishing trading city of Olbia, at the mouth of the Hypanis (Bug) and here he collected information about the countries lying between Tire (Dniester) and Borysthenes (Dnieper). In this part of Scythia, many areas are known to him from his own observation; he spent several days sailing up the Bug. From Olbia, Herodotus went around the Tauride Peninsula (Crimea) to Maeotis (Sea of Azov), then, along the eastern shore of Pontus, to Colchis, and from there along the southern coast of the Black Sea returned to the Thracian Bosphorus.

For ancient Russia and Ukraine, Herodotus is the most important of ancient historians, like Julius Caesar for France and Tacitus for Germany. Herodotus visited many areas of the Black Sea region and gave quite detailed information about this country and its then inhabitants: the Scythians and Sarmatians. Excavations in mounds at the sites of Scythian settlements described by Herodotus reveal a culture similar to that of which he speaks in his depiction of Scythia.

Scientific works of Herodotus

In addition to the countries mentioned above, Herodotus visited and examined all significant cities and sanctuaries on the Greek islands and on the Greek mainland; collected detailed information about the lands of the Balkan Peninsula, lying north of Greece, and subsequently, while living in Thurii, made trips to southern Italy and Sicily, so we can confidently say that none of the Greeks either before Herodotus or in his time I had not seen so many countries and peoples and did not have such extensive geographical knowledge as he did. The results of his travels served as the main material from which he compiled his great historical work. But we cannot suppose that the plan of this great work was clearly presented to him at the very beginning of his research; rather, one can think that he first followed the path of his predecessors, the logographers, arranging the collected information in the form of a series of historical and geographical pictures. Thus, Herodotus wrote separate “histories” (λόγοι) - Persian, Assyrian, Egyptian, Lydian, Scythian, and subsequently, having reached a higher point of view, he again revised them for a new purpose and partly included them in his great work. Herodotus achieved this highest understanding of the tasks of historiography as a result of his repeated trips to Athens and his long stay in this city; here, in the company of politically advanced people and with direct acquaintance with the great aspirations of which Pericles was the representative, he could delve deeper into the spirit of Greek history.

"History" of Herodotus

Svida, in his article on Herodotus, reports that our historian, having fled from Halicarnassus to Samos, took up the Ionic dialect there and wrote “History” in 9 books, starting from the times of the Persian king Cyrus and the Lydian Candaules. This assumption that Herodotus wrote his work quite already in these early years, we cannot recognize as probable. From it we can only conclude that around this time he wrote some of the individual studies already mentioned above, λόγοι. He could have published such individual sketches before he began processing the entire work. Lucian, in his short work “Herodotus or Aetion,” says that Herodotus, wanting to quickly gain fame and make his works popular, went from his homeland, Caria, to Hellas, and there, at the Olympic Games, read his work in front of a huge crowd , gathered from all Hellenic countries, and received such approval that his books, of which there were nine, were named after the names of the muses. But we can consider this story only the fabrication of a rhetorician who cared little about historical truth, although it is based, perhaps, on the historical fact that Herodotus read at the Olympic Games, in front of a large gathering, if not his entire work, then separate parts of his literary works. Other ancient writers also speak about such readings of Herodotus, and we have no reason to doubt it. In those days, sophists, poets, and rhapsodists performed in this way before large audiences; the works of Herodotus, both in their content and in form, were so interesting and entertaining that they should have met with extreme approval.

The ancients also talk about the reading of Herodotus in Athens, which Eusebius dates to 446. Some of the newest writers suggest that Herodotus read in the assembly during the Panathenaic festival. We have fairly probable news that the Athenian council, at the suggestion of Anytus, awarded Herodotus a gift of 10 talents for his reading. Connected with the story of this reading or another reading in Athens, in the house of Olor, the father of Thucydides (historian), as well as with the story of the reading in Olympia, is an unlikely story about the boy Thucydides, as if he was present at this reading and burst into tears from delight, and at the same time from the desire to imitate Herodotus. Then Herodotus said to the boy’s father: “I congratulate you, Olor: your son is burning with the desire for knowledge.” Further, they talk about the reading of Herodotus in Thebes and his intention to introduce the study of history into the schools there. Without a doubt, the anecdote relayed by Dion Chrysostomus was subsequently invented about how Herodotus appeared in Corinth and demanded a reward for his writings, in which there were no lies about Corinth. But the Corinthians refused him a reward, and for this he added to his history an unfavorable story for them about their participation in the Persian Wars. (See page 125).

Having finally settled in Thurii, Herodotus began processing the material he had collected during his wanderings, and created a large historical work that has come down to us, under the title “History” (Ίστορίαι). The main theme of this work is the glorious struggle of the Hellenes with the Persian kingdom; at the same time, Herodotus expresses the belief, very widespread at that time, that enmity between the Hellenes and the peoples of Asia has existed since ancient times. Having told the great drama of the Persian wars, Herodotus conveys, following the example of logographers, the history of all the peoples who participated in this great struggle, speaks about their way of life, customs and beliefs and presents a geographical and natural-historical description of their countries, so that the whole work represents something in kind of universal history. This entire work, probably already in the Alexandrian era, is divided into 9 books, each of which is named after a muse.

Herodotus’s “History” is a sparkling, simple story, imbued with a love for the good and the beautiful, a joyful story about how the love of freedom, courage, reasonable order, intelligence and modest morals of the Greeks triumphed over the servility and vain pomp of the numerous but disorderly hordes of the East. Throughout Herodotus’s story there is a contrast between the Greek people and the nature of Eastern life. Herodotus’s “History” is an entertaining, detailed account of great, amazing events, the course of which he describes to his inquisitive compatriots according to an excellently thought-out plan, giving them a series of lively, enticing pictures. The tone of his story is completely in harmony with the content, and in general, Herodotus’s “History” has the character of a majestic epic.

Fragment of Herodotus' "History" on papyrus from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt

Summary of “History” of Herodotus

Herodotus’s main goal in writing “History” was to preserve for posterity the memory of the great events of the wars with the Persians, so that, as he himself puts it, “the exploits of the Greeks and barbarians in their struggle among themselves would not disappear unknown into the river of time.” At the beginning of the first book of the History, Herodotus briefly reports the mythical events that, as he believes, served as the beginning of hostile relations between Europe and Asia - the abduction of Io and Europa, Medea and Helen; then he moves on to a story about a man about whom he himself probably knows that he was the first to act unfairly with the Hellenes - about the Lydian king Croesus, who subjugated the Greeks of Asia Minor to his power. The actions and fate of Croesus are told in Herodotus’s “History” in great detail, which gives reason to insert into this narrative, in the form of episodes, not only the history of the former Lydian kings and their wars with the Hellenic cities of Asia Minor, but also the history of Athens from the time of Solon and Sparta with from the time of Lycurgus to the time of Croesus. Having thus spoken about the first enslavement of the Greeks by Asian power, Herodotus immediately points to the Hellenic states, from which help and liberation will come in due time. The Persian Cyrus defeats Croesus and takes his place, so from now on the historian’s attention is drawn mainly to the Persian kingdom, which continues its hostile actions against the Greeks. First, Herodotus tells the history of the Median kingdom and the youth of Cyrus, the conqueror of the Medes; then describes his campaigns of conquest: against Babylon (the monuments, inhabitants and customs of this city are discussed in detail), against the Greeks of Asia Minor and against the Massagetae. At the same time, information is provided about the origin of the Asian Hellenes, as well as the neighboring Lycian and Carian tribes.

In the second book of the History, the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses gives Herodotus the occasion for a detailed description of this country, so interesting to him and to his compatriots; Herodotus provides information about the inhabitants, monuments, morals, customs and religious beliefs of Egypt. In the third book, Herodotus continues the story of Cambyses, Falsemerdis and Darius, as well as Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos, with whose fall Persian rule begins to spread to the Greek islands. Thus we see how the Persian kingdom is moving closer and closer to European Greece; the institutions introduced by Darius upon his accession to the kingdom - the division of the entire kingdom into 20 satrapies and the transfer of taxes paid by them give us an idea of the space and wealth of this powerful country.

In the fourth book of the History, Darius' campaign on the Danube and against the Scythians brings the Persians to Europe for the first time. Here we have a detailed description of northern Europe, namely Scythia and its inhabitants; in the same book of Herodotus there is news about the southern countries - about Cyrenaica and its history and about the Libyan tribes neighboring it, since simultaneously with Darius’s campaign against the Scythians, the Persians in Egypt were preparing for a campaign in Libya. The fifth book tells about the conquest of part of Thrace and Macedonia by the troops remaining after the Scythian campaign and about the Ionian uprising that began at the same time, the reason for which was also the Scythian campaign. The trip of the Milesian tyrant Aristagoras to Greece for help gives Herodotus a reason to continue the history of Sparta and Athens from the time where it stopped in the first book, and in particular to present the rapid strengthening of the Athenians, who, after the expulsion of the Peisistratids, felt, along with freedom, new strength and they were afraid to incur the wrath of the Persian king by supporting the Ionian vos/pa name=Having finally settled in Thurii, Herodotus began processing the material he had collected during his wanderings, and created a large historical work that has come down to us, under the title “History” ( Ίστορίαι). The main theme of this work is the glorious journey.

In the sixth book of Histories, Herodotus talks about the pacification of what was frivolously begun Ionian revolt, about Mardonius’s unsuccessful campaign against Greece; explains in detail the discord that occurred between the Greek states on the eve of the Persian wars, and then follows the story of the expedition of Datis and Artaphernes, which ended in the Marathon battle. Then, up to and including the ninth book of the History, the story of the last great events proceeds in a wide stream, not deviating from its natural path to the side, but with the same slowness, arousing the reader’s impatience. Herodotus describes in extreme detail all the tribes gathered by Xerxes from different sides of his vast kingdom against Greece, their origin, their weapons. These formidable masses are slowly approaching Greece, whose states, engaged in mutual bickering, cannot unite together to repel the danger; The first battles take place at Thermopylae and Artemisium, then large, decisive battles at Salamis, Plataea and Mycale, which avert the danger that threatened from Asia from Europe and serve as the beginning of the offensive struggle against Persia. The capture of Sestus by the Athenians is the last event of the war, reported by Herodotus. His work is not completely finished, although we do not think that Herodotus wanted to bring the history of the Persian wars to their very end, until the death of Cimon. The work, not completed, consists of the remark put into the mouth of Cyrus that those who live in the most fertile and richest region do not always turn out to be the bravest people.

Thus, Herodotus's History was written according to a well-thought-out plan. One thread runs through the entire work, with which the individual, large and small, parts of it are connected—sometimes, however, very weakly; the main theme is surrounded by many episodes, especially in the first books. Dionysius of Halicarnassus says about his fellow countryman that, imitating Homer, he tries to give his work the charm of variety through numerous episodes. But it is not just this many episodes that brings Herodotus’s work closer to the Homeric epic. Homer is also reminiscent of the simple, lively and visual presentation, the pleasant and good-natured detail of the narrative and the natural charm of the soft Ionic dialect. Athenaeus calls Herodotus for his style “worthy of wonder,” “sweet as honey”; Cicero compares it to the mirror surface of a calmly flowing river.

Philosophical and ethical views of Herodotus

The work of Herodotus has the character of a poetic work also because its core is a certain religious worldview. In this, the father of history differs from all later Greek historians. His work is imbued with the idea of a higher order in the world, of divine power, which, both in the physical world and in the moral world, indicates to every creature certain limits and measures and ensures that these limits are not violated. In his History, Herodotus shows how entire nations and each individual are subject to this supreme justice; if someone in proud self-confidence exceeds his allotted limit, or even without any evil thought enjoys extremely great happiness, the deity humiliates, punishes and crushes him in order to restore the disturbed balance again: “the deity does not tolerate anything being great besides him.” . Herodotus calls this just concern of the divine power for maintaining moral order in the world the envy (φθονος) of the deity - a concept that the ancients called otherwise Nemesis and coincides with the concept of Providence. Every man must fear this Nemesis, and guard against both excessive exaltation and misfortune; Herodotus also takes this into account. History, in his opinion, is a divine court that decides human affairs according to the law of moral and religious truth. Herodotus can even be called historian-theologian. Observing moderation and caution in his judgments about divine things, in the historical story about foreign peoples and in judgments about them, he tries to give everyone their due. Even among his enemies, Herodotus praises what deserves praise, and while reporting on the great deeds of his people, he avoids being carried away by natural national pride; more often he points out to his compatriots that they were saved rather by divine providence and a favorable combination of circumstances than by their own strengths and exploits.

Evaluations of Herodotus' works

When judging a historian, the most important question is his reliability. The credibility of Herodotus has been questioned since ancient times. Ctesias of Cnidus (c. 400 BC), court physician of King Artaxerxes Mnemon, who, based on Persian archival materials, wrote a large work on Persian history (Περσικά) before his time, but was not distinguished, according to the ancients, by his love of truth, he tells a lot about the Persian Wars in disagreement with Herodotus and calls him a liar and an inventor.

Following him, some other writers also came forward with accusations and refutations against Herodotus. Herodotus in his work is not a blind panegyrist of the Greeks. When it became fashionable among the Greeks to write history with rhetorical self-praise, his simple-minded truthfulness began to seem not to do justice to the Greek exploits; they began to reproach him for his tendency to speak ill of the Greeks. Plutarch, in the book that has come down to us “On Herodotus’s Desire for Reproach,” tries, prompted by petty nationalism, to accuse him with insignificant evidence of distortion of facts, lack of patriotism, partiality for the party and malicious humiliation of individuals. Others, although they did not directly accuse Herodotus’ “History” of deliberate falsification, still portrayed him as a frivolous and indiscriminate teller of fables and miracles. But in this they were unfair to our historian. In the selection of material, Herodotus acts with the greatest diligence and conscientiousness and reports the results of his research with truthfulness and not without subtle criticism. True, where he could not observe directly himself, where he had, during his travels, to be content with the stories of interpreters and periegetae, priests and other people, there Eastern boastfulness and passion for exaggeration told him many wonderful and incredible things. But Herodotus does not refuse to criticize such stories and often embarks on research and research in which real historical criticism is visible; in his stories, he always distinguishes what he learned and saw personally from what he knows only by hearsay. Where Herodotus could not decide how reliable this news is, or where he does not believe the reported rumor, there he directly admits this and says: “I must convey what I was told, but I do not need to believe everything.” Reporting about the expedition from the Red Sea around Africa, equipped under the Egyptian king Necho, he adds: “And they say, which I cannot believe, but which someone else may recognize as probable, that during their voyage off the coast of Libya the sun was on their right side” (IV, 42) - a remark that, of course, none of Herodotus’s contemporaries believed, but the validity of which we now do not doubt. If there are two different reports about the same subject, and Herodotus cannot give preference to one of them, then he gives both, leaving further research to their enlightened reader. Thus, he retained several very valuable pieces of information, the authenticity of which was confirmed only by recent research. The investigations of recent travelers in the countries visited by Herodotus more and more confirm that he reported information truthfully and conscientiously. When explaining the causes of events, as well as in judgments about the situation of the Greek states, Herodotus does not show the maturity of political development that could be expected from a contemporary and friend of Pericles. He tries to explain events more by the inclinations and passions of individuals than by deeper political reasons, the position and interests of states; For him, the moral and religious element is in the foreground, not the political.

Literary style of Herodotus

In ancient times, Herodotus, on the one hand, was subject to censure and accusations, and on the other hand, was the subject of surprise and high respect; but his censure came, for the most part, from individuals, and respect for him was shared by everyone and was preserved forever among people who understand the matter. His “History” was read by many, commented on, and extracts were made from it; in Alexandria, in the great theater, the actor Hegesius read passages from Herodotus; and this case was not the only one of its kind. It was especially valued by the ancients for its pleasant language. Dionysius of Halicarnassus called him the best example of the Ionic dialect, but not because his Ionic dialect, like Hecataeus of Miletus, was completely pure and free from all impurities - Herodotus mixed into it words and expressions from other dialects, from epics, from tragedies , - but because he was the first to develop the Ionic dialect in beautiful prose, which can be placed alongside poetry. Herodotus's speech is simple and clear, as if he were speaking and not writing; it usually consists of small sentences, loosely connected to each other (Λέξις έιρομένη, “speech of a simple order”). Where Herodotus tries, following the model of Attic periodic speech, to compose large complex sentences, he turns out to be weak and unskillful.

The last years of Herodotus' life

Double bust of Herodotus and Thucydides

After his resettlement in Thurii, therefore, after 444 BC, Herodotus led a quiet life in this city, however, taking small trips from time to time to the cities of Magna Graecia and to Sicily. He was again in Athens, probably at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, since he saw the Propylaea, built only in 431 BC. We have no definite news about the time of Herodotus’ death. Previously, based on two places in his work (I, 130 and III, 15), it was believed that he lived after 408: in the first of these places, Herodotus mentions the rebellion of the Medes against Darius, and this king was considered for Darius Nof, against which the Medes rebelled in 408, since nothing was known about the Median revolt against Darius Hystaspes. But the Behistun inscription has now been discovered, which tells in detail about the unsuccessful uprising of the Mede Phraortes against Darius Hystaspes, which dates back to approximately 520 BC. Considering the words of Herodotus, we find that he could be talking specifically about this uprising . In the book. III, ch. 15, mentions the death of a certain Amirtheus from the ancient Egyptian royal family, who rebelled against the Persians. But this Amirteus is not the one who rebelled against the Persians in 405–400 BC and took possession of Egypt, but another, an ally of Inar in the uprising of 460–455 BC, perhaps the grandfather of the one named above . The latest events mentioned by Herodotus in his work all refer to the first years of the Peloponnesian War, no later than 428 BC; and since in the place mentioned above (I, 130) he calls Darius Hystaspes simply Darius and does not distinguish him, to avoid ambiguity, from Darius Nophus, we can assume that Herodotus no longer worked on his work after 424, when Darius Nof began to reign; and since this work was not completed, he hardly lived longer than 424 years.

Herodotus died in Thurii and was buried in the city square, a distinction given only to prominent citizens. On his tomb the Thurians wrote the following inscription:

“The son of Lyx, Herodotus, the creator of the ancient history of the Ionic style, is laid to rest here where he died. He grew far away, in the Doric land; but, avoiding misfortunes, he found a new homeland in the fields of Thurii.”

According to Svida, some claimed that Herodotus died in Pella, the capital of Macedonia; in another place he says that Herodotus, in the times of Euripides and Sophocles, was together with Hellanicus at the Macedonian court. Herodotus showed a special affection for the Macedonian royal house; During his travels he probably lived for some time in Pella and was on friendly terms with the family of the king, who, after the death of the historian, could have erected a cenotaph for him. It was this cenotaph that could lead to the assumption that Herodotus died in Pella. And in Athens also there was the cenotaph of Herodotus at the Melitid Gate, and next to it was the tomb of his great successor in history, Thucydides.

An ancient bust of Herodotus is in the Naples Museum; double bust of Herodotus and Thucydides - in the Farnese Museum in Rome.

Articles and monographs about Herodotus

Nadezhdin N.I. Herodotova Scythia, explained through comparison with localities. Odessa, 1842

Dyachan F.N. Herodotus and his muses. Part 1. Warsaw, 1877

Klinger V.P. Fairytale motifs in the history of Herodotus. Kyiv, 1903

Lurie S. Ya. Herodotus. M.-L., 1947.

Dovatur A.I. Narrative and scientific style of Herodotus. - L., 1957

Ditmar A. B. From Scythia to Elephantine. Life and travels of Herodotus. - M., 1961

Borukhovich V. G. Historical concept of the Egyptian logos of Herodotus. Saratov, 1972.

Rybakov B. A. Gerodotova Scythia: Historical and geographical analysis. M., 1979

Neihardt A. A. The Scythian story of Herodotus in Russian historiography. L., 1982

Dovatur A.I., Kallistov D.P., Shishova I.A. The peoples of our country in Herodotus’ “History”. M., 1982

Kuznetsova T. I., Miller T. A. Ancient epic historiography: Herodotus. Titus Livy. - M., 1984

GEORODOTUS.

STORY

Book I CLIO

Herodotus of Halicarnassus collected and wrote down this information1 so that past events would not fall into oblivion over time and the great and amazing deeds2 of both the Hellenes and the barbarians would not remain unknown, especially why they waged war with each other.

1. According to people knowledgeable among the Persians, the Phoenicians were the originators of the discord between the Hellenes and the barbarians. The latter arrived from the so-called Red Sea to Our Sea3 and settled in the country where they still live4. The Phoenicians immediately set out on long sea voyages. Transporting Egyptian and Assyrian goods to many countries, they, by the way, arrived in Argos. Argos in those days was the most significant city in the country, which is now called Hellas. When the Phoenicians arrived at the aforementioned Argos5, they put their goods up for sale. On the fifth or sixth day after their arrival, when almost all the goods had already been sold, the king’s daughter, among many other women, came to the seashore. Her name was Io, daughter of Inachus; the Hellenes call it the same. The women stood at the stern of the ship and bought the goods they liked most. Then the Phoenicians, at this sign, attacked the women. Most of the women, however, escaped, but they managed to capture Io and several others. The Phoenicians dragged the women onto the ship and then hastily sailed to Egypt6.

2. So, the Persians say, Io ended up in Egypt. The Hellenes convey this differently. This event served as the first cause of hostility. Then, they further say, some Hellenes (they cannot give a name) arrived in Tire of Phoenicia and kidnapped the royal daughter Europa. They must have been Cretans8. With this they only repaid the Phoenicians for their misconduct. Then the Hellenes again offended the barbarians. They arrived on a warship to Aea in Colchis and to the mouth of the Phasis River. Having completed all the business for which they had arrived there, the Hellenes then kidnapped the royal daughter Medea. The king of the Colchians then sent an envoy to Hellas demanding a penalty for the kidnapped woman and the return of his daughter. The Hellenes, however, gave the following answer: since they themselves did not receive a penalty for the kidnapping of the Argive woman Io, they will not give anything to the king.

3. Then in the next generation, they say, Alexander, son of Priam, who heard about this kidnapping, wanted to get a woman from Hellas for himself by kidnapping. He was firmly convinced that he would not be punished, since the Hellenes did not pay anything then. After Alexander had kidnapped Helen in this way, the Greeks first decided to send envoys to return Helen and demand a penalty for the kidnapping. The Trojans responded by reproaching them for kidnapping Medea. Then, they said, the Hellenes themselves did not give any penalty and did not return Medea, but now they are demanding a penalty from others.

4. Until now, only temporary abductions of women have occurred. As for the subsequent time, then, undoubtedly, the heavy guilt lies with the Hellenes, since they went on a campaign to Asia earlier than the barbarians went to Europe. The abduction of women, it is true, is an unjust matter, but trying to take revenge for the abduction, according to the Persians, is reckless. In any case, the wise one is the one who does not care about kidnapped women. It is clear that women would not have been kidnapped if they themselves did not want it. According to the Persians, the inhabitants of Asia do not pay any attention to the abduction of women, but the Hellenes, on the contrary, for the sake of a woman from Lacedaemon, gathered a huge army, and then crossed to Asia and crushed the power of Priam. From this time on, the Persians always recognized the Hellenes as their enemies. After all, the Persians consider Asia and the barbarian tribes living there to be theirs, while Europe and Hellas are a foreign country for them.

5. This, say the Persians, was the course of events, and the capture of Ilion, they think, was the cause of hostility towards the Hellenes. The Phoenicians tell a different story about the abduction of Io than the Persians, that’s what. Precisely, according to them, they did not take Io forcibly to Egypt at all, since she had already entered into a love affair with the owner of the ship in Argos. When she felt pregnant, out of shame in front of her parents, she voluntarily left with the Phoenicians to hide her shame. This is what the Persians and Phoenicians say. As for me, I do not undertake to say whether it happened exactly this way or in any other way. However, I want to name the person who, as I myself know, initiated hostilities against the Hellenes. Then, in continuation of my story, I will describe in a similar way both small and great human cities. After all, many once great cities have now become small, and those that were powerful in my time were previously insignificant. And since I know that human happiness is changeable, I will equally mention the fate of both. 6. Croesus, by birth a Lydian10, son of Alyattes, was the ruler of the peoples on this side of the river Halys (Galis flows from south to north between the lands of the Syrians11 and Paphlagonians and flows into the sea called the Euxine Pontus). This Croesus, as far as I know, was the first of the barbarians to conquer part of the Hellenes and force them to pay tribute to themselves; with others he concluded treaties of alliance. He conquered the Ionians, Aeolians and Asian Dorians12, and entered into an alliance with the Lacedaemonians. However, before the rule of Croesus, all Hellenes were free. After all, the invasion of the Cimmerians13, who even before the time of Croesus reached Ionia, was not a long-term conquest, but rather a simple raid to capture booty.

7. The power that previously belonged to the house of Heraclides passed to the family of Croesus (this family is called the Mermnads)14. It happened this way: Candaules, whom the Greeks call Mirsilos, was the tyrant of Sardis. He was a descendant of Alcaeus, son of Hercules. The first king of Sardis from the house of Heraclides was Agron, son of Ninus, grandson of Bel, great-grandson of Alcaeus. Candaules, son of Myrs, was their last king. The kings who ruled this country before Agron were descendants of Lydas, the son of Atys, that Lydian from whom all the present people (formerly called Maeons) received the name Lydians. From them, according to the oracle, the Heraclides received power. The latter descended from Hercules and the slave girl Jordan and ruled for 22 human generations 15, 505 years, and their son always inherited power from his father until Candaules, the son of Myrs.

8. This Candaules was very much in love with his wife and, like a lover, believed that he had the most beautiful woman in the world. Among his bodyguards was a certain Gyges, son of Dascylus, whom he especially valued. Candaules trusted this Gyges with the most important matters and even praised the beauty of his wife. Soon after this (after all, Candaules was predicted to have a bad end), he turned to Gyges with these words: “Gyges, you seem to not believe what I told you about the beauty of my wife (after all, people trust their ears less than their eyes), so try to see her naked.” Crying loudly in amazement, Gyges answered: “What foolish words, sir, are you speaking! Are you telling me to look at a naked mistress? After all, women, along with their clothes, take off their shame! 17 People have long learned the rules of decency and they should be learned. One of them is the main thing: let everyone look only after his own. I believe that she is the most beautiful of all women, but I still ask: do not demand from me anything contrary to customs.”

Herodotus of Halicarnassus collected and wrote down this information 1
In the original???????? ??????? – presentation of information obtained through questioning.

So that past events and great and amazing deeds do not fall into oblivion over time 2
In the original???? - deeds, buildings, in general all the results of human activity, successes.

Both the Hellenes and the barbarians were not left in obscurity, especially why they waged war with each other.

1. According to people knowledgeable among the Persians, the Phoenicians were the originators of the discord between the Hellenes and the barbarians. The last arrived from the so-called Red Sea to Our Sea 3
Here: Persian Gulf. Our sea is the Mediterranean Sea.

And they settled in the country where they still live 4
This refers to the Aramaic migration of peoples (c. 1400–1200 BC) from eastern Arabia to northern Syria. The Arameans founded the cities mentioned in the Bible there.

The Phoenicians immediately set out on long sea voyages. Transporting Egyptian and Assyrian goods to many countries, they, by the way, arrived in Argos. Argos in those days was the most significant city in the country, which is now called Hellas. When the Phoenicians arrived just in the mentioned Argos 5
Gold jewelry, alabaster vessels and ostrich eggs were found in Mycenaean (Argos) mine tombs (17th century BC). The trade relations mentioned by Herodotus could have existed already in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e.

Then they put their goods up for sale.

On the fifth or sixth day after their arrival, when almost all the goods had already been sold, the king’s daughter, among many other women, came to the seashore. Her name was Io, daughter of Inachus; the Hellenes call it the same. The women stood at the stern of the ship and bought the goods they liked most. Then the Phoenicians, at this sign, attacked the women. Most of the women, however, escaped, but they managed to capture Io and several others. The Phoenicians dragged the women onto the ship and then hastily sailed to Egypt. 6
This reason for the war between the Greeks and the barbarians is parodied by Aristophanes (Acharnians, 330 ff.).

They must have been Cretans 8
The Cretans or related "sea peoples" landed around 1200 BC. e. on the Syrian and Palestinian coasts and founded many cities there (for example, Gaza, Ascalon). The Bible calls them "Philistines."

With this they only repaid the Phoenicians for their misconduct. Then the Hellenes again offended the barbarians. On a warship they arrived at Aea in Colchis and at the mouth of the Phasis River. Having completed all the business for which they had arrived there, the Hellenes then kidnapped the royal daughter Medea. The king of the Colchians then sent an envoy to Hellas demanding a penalty for the kidnapped woman and the return of his daughter. The Hellenes, however, gave the following answer: since they themselves did not receive a penalty for the kidnapping of the Argive woman Io, they will not give anything to the king.

4. Until now, only temporary abductions of women have occurred. As for the subsequent time, undoubtedly the heavy guilt lies with the Hellenes, since they went on a campaign to Asia earlier than the barbarians went to Europe. The abduction of women, it is true, is an unjust matter, but trying to take revenge for the abduction, according to the Persians, is reckless. In any case, the wise one is the one who does not care about kidnapped women. It is clear that women would not have been kidnapped if they themselves did not want it. According to the Persians, the inhabitants of Asia do not pay any attention to the abduction of women, but the Hellenes, on the contrary, for the sake of a woman from Lacedaemon, gathered a huge army, and then crossed to Asia and crushed the power of Priam. From this time on, the Persians always recognized the Hellenes as their enemies. After all, the Persians consider Asia and the barbarian tribes living there to be theirs, while Europe and Hellas are a foreign country for them.

Then, in continuation of my story, I will describe in a similar way both small and great human cities. After all, many once great cities have now become small, and those that were powerful in my time were previously insignificant. And since I know that human happiness is changeable, I will equally mention the fate of both.

6. Croesus, originally a Lydian 10
They apparently belong to the Indo-European peoples. The language of the Lydians belongs to the Hittite-Luwian group or to the Hittite-Lydian subgroup (see: V.V. Shevoroshkin. Lydian language. M., 1967. P. 17). The Lydians are mentioned in Egyptian inscriptions (c. 1234–1225 BC) as "Tursha" among the "sea" peoples who attacked Egypt.

The son of Aliattes, was the ruler of the peoples on this side of the river Halys (Halis flows from south to north between the lands of the Syrians 11
The Syrians here mean the Khalibs (in Homer, the Halizons. Iliad II, 856).

And the Paphlagonians and flows into the sea called the Euxine Pontus). This Croesus, as far as I know, was the first of the barbarians to conquer part of the Hellenes and force them to pay tribute to themselves; with others he concluded treaties of alliance. He conquered the Ionians, Aeolians and Asian Dorians 12
Herodotus mentions only part of the Greek tribes that settled on the western coast of Asia Minor. Greek tribes moved to Asia Minor after the fall of the Hittite kingdom (around 1170 BC). First the Aeolians came, then the Ionians and last the Dorians.

And he entered into an alliance with the Lacedaemonians. However, before the rule of Croesus, all Hellenes were free. After all, the invasion of the Cimmerians 13
The Cimmerian invasion dates back to ca. 700 BC e. The Akkadian version of the Persian royal inscriptions knows the Cimmerians as the Saks in the west of modern times. Turkestan. They lived north of the Oxus and were called "Gimir" or "Gimmiri".

Which even before the time of Croesus reached Ionia, was not a long-term conquest, but rather a simple raid to seize booty.

7. The power that previously belonged to the house of Heraclides passed to the family of Croesus (this family is called the Mermnads) 14
Herodotus gives a mythical genealogy of the Lydian kings. He apparently does not know Lydian legends. Thus, the name of the king Kandaulus is not the proper name of a specific king, but rather means “ruler.”

It happened this way: Candaules, whom the Greeks call Mirsilos, was the tyrant of Sardis. He was a descendant of Alcaeus, son of Hercules. The first king of Sardis from the house of Heraclides was Agron, son of Ninus, grandson of Bel, great-grandson of Alcaeus. Candaules, son of Myrs, was their last king. The kings who ruled this country before Agron were descendants of Lydas, the son of Atys, that Lydian from whom all the present people (formerly called Maeons) received the name Lydians. From them, according to the oracle, the Heraclides received power. The latter descended from Hercules and the slave girl Jordan and ruled for 22 human generations 15
In chronology, Herodotus adheres to the principle of his predecessors: three generations are equal to one hundred years (see: S. Ya. Lurie. Herodotus, p. 112).

505 years, and always their son inherited power from his father right up to Candaules, son of Myrs.

8. This Candaules was very much in love with his wife and, like a lover, believed that he had the most beautiful woman in the world. Among his bodyguards was a certain Gyges 16
The name of the founder of the new Lydian dynasty is interpreted by researchers in different ways. Some consider it a term of kinship (“grandfather”), others consider it the name of a bird (see: V.V. Shevoroshkin. Lydian language, p. 56). The father of Gyges, perhaps, came from the Bithynian city of Daskylion and therefore was called Dascylus. King Gyges created a powerful and independent state, thanks to which the Lydians concentrated in their hands all overland trade in Western Asia (S. Ya. Lurie. History, p. 97).

The son of Daskil, whom he especially valued. Candaules entrusted the most important matters to this Gyges and even praised the beauty of his wife. Soon after this (after all, Candaules was predicted to have a bad end), he turned to Gyges with these words: “Gyges, you seem to not believe what I told you about the beauty of my wife (after all, people trust their ears less than their eyes), so try to see her naked.” Crying loudly in amazement, Gyges answered: “What foolish words, sir, are you speaking! Are you telling me to look at a naked mistress? After all, women take off shame along with their clothes! 17
Meaning: “the moment a woman takes off her tunic, she is deprived of the respect due to her” (cf.: R. Harder. Herodot I 8, 3. Herodot. Eine Auswahl aus der neueren Forschungen. Munchen, 1962. S. 374).

People have long learned the rules of decency and they should be learned. One of them is the main thing: let everyone look only after his own. I believe that she is the most beautiful of all women, but I still ask: do not demand from me anything contrary to customs.”

9. Thus spoke Gyges, trying to reject the king's proposal for fear of getting into trouble because of it. Candaules objected to him with these words: “Be calm, Gyges, and do not be afraid: I did not say this to test you, and my wife will also not cause you any harm. First I’ll arrange everything so that she won’t even notice that you saw her. I will put you in our sleeping chamber behind the closing door. My wife will follow me there to lie down on the bed. Close to the entrance there is a chair where the wife, when undressing, will put her clothes one after the other. And then you can calmly admire her. If she moves from the chair to the box and turns her back to you, then try to go out through the door so that she doesn’t see you.”

10. Then Gyges could no longer evade such an offer and expressed his readiness. When Candaules decided that it was time to go to bed, he led Gyges into the sleeping chamber, where his wife then immediately came. And Gyges admired how she entered and took off her clothes. As soon as the woman turned her back to him, Gyges tried to slip away unnoticed and leave the room. However, the woman saw him leave.

Although she realized that all this was arranged by her husband, she did not scream in shame, but, on the contrary, pretended that she had not noticed anything, but in her heart she decided to take revenge on Candaules. After all, among the Lydians and all other barbarians it is considered a great shame, even if a man is seen naked.

11. As if nothing had happened, the woman remained silent for now. But as soon as the day came, she ordered her most devoted servants to be ready and call Gyges to her. Gyges came to the call, confident that she knew nothing about the incident, since before he usually came whenever the queen called him to her. When Gyges appeared before her, the woman addressed him with the following words: “Gyges, there are now two paths before you; I give you the choice of which way you want to go. Either you will kill Candaules and, having taken me as your wife, you will become king of the Lydians, or you will die right now, so that you, as a faithful friend of Candaules, will not see at another time what is not right for you. So, one of you must die: either he who seduced you into this act, or you who committed obscenity after seeing my nakedness.” Amazed by her words, Gyges at first did not know what to answer, and then began to beg the queen not to force him to make such a terrible choice. Gyges still failed to convince her. Then, seeing that the choice was inevitable - either to kill his master, or to fall at the hands of the executioners himself - he chose life for himself and turned to the queen with the following question: “Since you are forcing me against my will to kill my master, then tell me how Are we going to end him? To this the queen gave the following answer: “We will attack him in the very place from which he showed me naked to you, and you will kill him while he sleeps.”

12. Having thought over this insidious plan together, Gyges, at nightfall, entered the sleeping chamber after the woman (after all, she would not let Gyges go; his exit was cut off, and he had to either die himself or kill Candaules). Then the queen gave him a dagger and hid it behind the same door. When Candaules fell asleep, Gyges, stealthily, made his way to him and, stabbing him, thus took possession of his wife and kingdom. Archilochus of Paros, who lived at that time in iambic trimeter, also talks about this.

13. Thus Gyges took possession of the kingdom, and the Delphic oracle confirmed his right to the throne with a saying. After the murder of Candaules, the Lydians took up arms in indignation, but the adherents of Gyges agreed with the rest of the Lydians that Gyges would remain their king if only the oracle recognized him. The oracle pronounced recognition, and thus Gyges became king. However, the Pythia also added the following saying: The Heraclides will receive retribution in the fifth descendant of Gyges. However, the Lydians and their king did not attach any importance to this oracle until it was fulfilled.

14. Thus the Mermnads took possession of the royal power, which they had taken from the Heraclides. Gyges, having ascended the throne, sent a considerable number of dedicatory gifts to Delphi (he dedicated most of the silver items to Delphi) 18
As a non-Hellenic, Gyges could not have his treasury in Delphi.

And besides silver, he also devoted a countless amount of gold; among other things worthy of mention, there are 6 gold craters weighing 30 talents. They stand in the treasury of the Corinthians. In reality, this is not the treasury of the Corinthian state, but of Cypselus, son of Eetion. This Gyges was, as far as I know, the first of the barbarians (after Midas 19
The name Midas appears in an ancient Phrygian inscription from the 7th century. BC e. in the form of Midai.

Son of Gordius, king of Phrygia), who dedicated gifts to Delphi. After all, Midas also brought gifts, namely his royal throne, sitting on which he carried out judgment. This remarkable throne stands on the same site as the Gyges Craters. And these gold and silver vessels, dedicated by Gyges, are called by the Delphians Gygades, after the name of the dedicator. After his accession, Gyges marched on Miletus and Smyrna and conquered the city of Colophon. However, during his 38-year reign, Gyges 20
Gyges fell in battle with the Cimmerians c. 654 BC e. (cm.: V. V. Struve. Sketches, p. 91).

He did not do anything great, and since we have already talked a lot about him, we can now move on to his descendants.

15. I will mention Ardis, son of Gyges, who reigned after him. Ardis conquered Priene and went to war against Miletus 21
The Lydian kings waged a stubborn war with Miletus (due to trade interests), but they failed to take the city. However, they did not interfere in the internal affairs of the cities and left all maritime trade in the hands of the Greeks. Lydian domination was rather beneficial for the Greeks (see: S. Ya. Lurie. History, p. 98).

During his reign in Sardis, the Cimmerians 22
According to Akkadian (Assyrian) legend, Gyges (Gi-gu), the father of Ardis, already fought with the Cimmerians. The Lydian king first entered into an alliance with the Assyrian king Assurbanipal, and then with the king of Egypt Psammetichus.

Expelled from their usual habitats by Scythian nomads 23
OK. 720 BC e. The Scythians came to the Black Sea steppes from modern times. Western Turkestan and then approx. 623 conquered the Median kingdom of Cyaxares.

Penetrated into Asia and captured Sardis (except for the acropolis).

16. After the 49-year reign of Ardis, the throne was inherited by his son Sadiat, who reigned for 12 years. Sadiattus was succeeded by Alyattes. The latter began a war with Cyaxares (grandson of Deiocus) and with the Medes. He then drove the Cimmerians out of Asia, conquered Smyrna, a colony of Colophon, and went to war against Clazomenae. He had to return from Klazomen not as he would have liked, but with great damage.

17. Of the other acts of his reign, these are the most worthy of mention. Continuing the war begun by his father, he fought with the Milesians. Having set out on a campaign, he acted like this during the siege of Miletus. He began a campaign with an army against Miletus at the time when the grain was ripening in the fields. He walked to the sounds of pipes and pectids 24
Pectida– A 20-string instrument like a harp, spanning 2 octaves. Flute a low tone was called masculine, and a high tone was called feminine.

Both male and female flutes. Arriving in the land of the Milesians, he did not destroy and burn the houses in the fields and break open the doors, but left them intact. He only cut down the trees and destroyed the grain in the fields, and then returned home. It was useless to besiege the city, since the Milesians dominated the sea. The Lydian king did not destroy the houses so that the Milesians could, while living in them, from there again sow and plow their fields, and so that he himself, when they cultivated the land again, could devastate them again during the next raid.

18. Thus the Lydian king waged war for eleven years in a row. During these years, the Milesians suffered great defeats twice: on their own soil at Limenaeum and in the Meander valley. Six of these eleven years date back to the era of the reign of Sadiattes, the son of Ardis, over the Lydians, who at that time was at war with the Milesians (after all, it was Sadiattes who started the war). For the last five years, the war was waged by Aliattes, the son of Sadiattes, who, as I mentioned above, having received it from his father, continued zealously. Not a single Ionian city helped the Milesians in this war, except for the Chios alone, who came to their aid in retribution. Previously, the Milesians waged war together with the Chians against the Erythraeans.

19. When, in the twelfth year of the war, the army of the Lydians again burned the fields, this is what happened. As soon as the fields began to burn, the fire, caught by the wind, spread to the temple of Athena, nicknamed Assesia 25
Assess- the place where the temple stood. Lydian name of the goddess Athena Asvi (V.V. Shevoroshkin. Lydian language, p. 54).

Engulfed in flames, the temple burned down. At first, the Lydians did not attach any significance to this event. Upon the army's return to Sardis, Aliatt fell ill. Meanwhile, the illness dragged on, and the king sent ambassadors to Delphi - whether someone advised him or he himself decided - to ask the oracle about the illness. Upon the arrival of the ambassadors in Delphi, Pythia answered that God would not give them divination until they restored the burnt temple of Athena, which was at Asses in the land of the Milesians.

20. I myself heard such a story at Delphi. The Milesians add this to this. Periander, the son of Cypselus, a close friend of Thrasybulus, the then tyrant of Miletus, learned about the oracle given to Aliattus. He sent a messenger to Thrasybulus with a message about the oracle, so that he would take his measures in advance. This is what the Milesians say.

21. Alyattes, say the Milesians, having received the answer from the Pythia, immediately sent a herald to Miletus to conclude a truce with Thrasybulus and the Milesians until he rebuilt the temple. So, the royal herald arrived in Miletus. Thrasybulus, having been notified of everything in advance and knowing the intentions of Alyattes, came up with such a trick. He ordered all the grain that was in the city (both his own and that of individual citizens) to be taken to the market square and ordered the Milesians, at this sign, to begin merry feasts with songs.

22. And Thrasybulus did this and gave such an order so that the herald from Sardis, seeing huge heaps of grain piled up in the square and people living for their own pleasure, would inform Alyattes about this. This is exactly what happened. The messenger saw all this and then, having conveyed the order of the Lydian king Thrasybulus, returned to Sardis. And, as I learned, peace was made for no other reason than his message. Alyattes, after all, was counting on the fact that there was a severe famine in Miletus and that the exhausted people had reached the limit of misfortune. Now, on the return of the herald from Miletus, he heard a message exactly the opposite of what he expected. After this a peace was concluded, according to which they entered into friendship and alliance with each other. Alyattes erected two temples to Athena in Asses, instead of one, and was healed of his illness. This was the case with Alyattes with the war against the Milesians and Thrasybulus.

23. Periander, who informed Thrasybulus of the said oracle, was the son of Cypselus. Periander was the tyrant of Corinth. With him, as the Corinthians say (and this story is also confirmed by the Lesbians), the greatest miracle happened in life. Arion of Methymna was carried out of the sea by Tenar on a dolphin. It was an incomparable lyre of its time and, as far as I know, it was the first to compose dithyrambs 26
Dithyramb– in fact, the cult nickname of Dionysus. Subsequently, the word came to mean a solemn song in honor of a god or hero. It was sung mainly to the accompaniment of a flute.

Gave him a name and trained a choir for production in Corinth.

24. This Arion spent most of his life with Periander and then decided to sail to Italy and Sicelia. There he acquired great wealth, then wished to return back to Corinth. He set off from Tarantum and, since he trusted no one more than the Corinthians, hired a ship from the Corinthian sailors. And the shipmen decided [an evil deed]: to throw Arion into the sea on the open sea and take possession of his treasures. Arion, having guessed their intention, began to beg to spare his life, offering to give up all his treasures. However, he failed to soften the shipmen. They ordered Arion either to take his own life in order to be buried in the ground, or to immediately throw himself into the sea. In such a desperate situation, Arion nevertheless begged the shipmen (since this was their decision) to at least allow him to sing in full singer’s attire, standing on the rowers’ bench. He promised that, having sung his song, he would take his own life. Then the shipmen moved from the stern to the middle of the ship, rejoicing that they were about to hear the best singer in the world. Arion, dressed in the full outfit of a singer, took the cithara and, standing at the stern, performed a solemn song 27
????? ?????? - a tune, a melody performed in a very high voice.

Having finished the song, he, in all his finery, rushed into the sea. Meanwhile, the shipmen sailed to Corinth, and Arion, as they say, was picked up on the back of a dolphin and carried to Tenar. Arion went ashore and, in his singer’s outfit, went to Corinth. Upon arrival there, he told everything that had happened to him. Periander did not believe the story and ordered Arion to be taken into custody and not released anywhere, and to closely monitor the shipmen. When they arrived in Corinth, Periander called them to him and asked what they knew about Arion. The shipmen replied that Arion was alive and well somewhere in Italy and they left him in Tarant in complete well-being. Then Arion suddenly appeared in the very clothes in which he threw himself into the sea. The amazed shipmen could no longer deny their guilt, since they had been convicted. This is what the Corinthians and Lesbians say. And on Tenar there is a small copper statue - a sacrificial gift from Arion - depicting a man on a dolphin.

25. At the end of the war with the Milesians, Aliattes the Lydian died. He reigned for 57 years. Having been healed of his illness, the king (the second from this royal house) brought dedicatory gifts to Delphi: a large silver bowl for mixing wine with water on an iron inlaid stand - one of the most remarkable offerings in Delphi, the work of Glaucus of Chios (he was the first of people to invent the art of inlay 28
Otherwise: “soldering iron.”

Iron).

26. After the death of Alyattes, the kingdom passed to his son Croesus 29
For the Greeks, Croesus is a type of philhellen king; for the Lydians, the reign of Croesus is the time of heyday and splendor of the Lydian state; in the eyes of the Delphians, Croesus is an admirer of the authority of the oracle. The story about Croesus combines two concepts: one is the Delphic one, according to which retribution for the crimes of Gyges falls on the fifth descendant - Croesus; the other transfers the blame to Croesus himself, who brought upon himself the “envy” (or “jealousy”) of the gods (cf.: A. I. Dovatur. Style, p. 191).

Who was then 35 years old. The first Hellenic city he attacked was Ephesus. When Croesus besieged Ephesus, the Ephesians dedicated their city to Artemis and stretched a cable from the goddess's temple to the city wall. The distance between the old city, which was then besieged, and the temple was 7 stadia. So, Croesus first went on a campaign against the Ephesians, and then in turn against all the Ionians and Aeolians. At the same time, the king presented new reasons for the attack each time. If it was possible to find an important reason, then he brought forward more serious accusations, but in other cases he was content with even insignificant reasons.

27. Having conquered the Asian Hellenes, Croesus forced them to pay tribute. He then planned to build a fleet and attack the islanders. When everything was ready for the construction of ships, Bias from Priene arrived in Sardis (others say that Pittacus 30
Pittacus could not meet Croesus in 560, since he died in 570 BC. e. (cm.: V. V. Struve. Sketches, p. 93).

From Mytilene). Croesus asked the stranger: “What’s new in Hellas?” And he answered this (which is what rejected Croesus from building ships): “O king! The islanders are buying many horses, preparing to march against you against Sardis.” Croesus thought that Bias was telling the truth, and said to him: “Oh, if only the gods would instill in the islanders this idea of going on horseback against the Lydian sons.” Biant, interrupting him, said: “King! You, of course, passionately desire that the islanders and their cavalry fall into your hands on the mainland, and you have every reason for this. What do you think the islanders want when they learn that you intend to build a fleet against them? Nothing else but to capture the Lydians at sea and avenge the enslavement of the mainland Hellenes." These words made Croesus very happy. He found the conclusion quite correct and ordered the construction of the fleet to be stopped 31
This story reflects the Lydians' attempt to engage in maritime trade and conquer the islands (see: S. Ya. Lurie. History, p. 98, note. 1).

This is how Croesus entered into friendship with the Ionian islanders.

Introduction and mythical antiquity of Lydia (1–5). History of Lydia from Croesus: transfer of power from the Heraclides to the Mermnads (6–13). Reign of Gyges, Ardis, Sadiatta, Aliatta; their relationship to the Hellenes; the case of Arion (14–25). Croesus, Solon’s visit to him (26–33). Croesus' domestic disasters; test of oracles (34–52). Preparations for war with the Persians; appeal to the Athenians and Spartans and the affairs of these latter (53–70). War with the Persians, fall of Sardis, enslavement of the Medes by the Persians; the fate of Croesus (71–94). Asia before the domination of the Persians: the rule of the Assyrians, the history of the Medes; Cyrus before the conquest of Media (95–129). Conquest of the Medes by the Persians; morals and customs of the Persians (130–140). Cities of the Ionians and Aeolians (141–153). Conquests of Cyrus on the mainland and islands (154–177). Assyria with Babylon, the conquest of Babylon, attractions of Assyria (178–200). March on the Massagetae; death of Cyrus; customs of the Massagetae (201–216).

1. Herodotus of Halicarnassus presents the following research so that over time the deeds of people will not be erased from our memory, and also so that the huge and amazing structures, executed partly by Hellenes, partly by barbarians, will not be ingloriously forgotten, the reason why there was war between them.

Persian scholars claim that the Phoenicians were the culprits of the feud, namely: having arrived from the so-called Erythraean Sea to Ours and settling here in the land that they occupy now, the Phoenicians immediately turned to sailing to distant countries; with Egyptian and Assyrian goods they entered different lands, including Argos. Argos at that time was the leading state in all respects in present-day Hellas. Upon arrival here, the Phoenicians began selling their goods. On the fifth or sixth day, when everything was almost sold, the daughter of the local king Inach, named Io, came to the seashore, among other women, as the Greeks call her. Sitting at the stern, the women bought the goods that each of them liked best. Then the Phoenicians, agreeing among themselves, rushed at the women; Most of them escaped, but Io, along with several others, was captured by the Phoenicians. Throwing the women onto the ship, they sailed to Egypt.

2. This is how Io arrived in Egypt, according to the stories of the Persians; but this is not how the Hellenes talk about it. According to Persian scholars, this was the first insult. After this, they continue, several Hellenes landed near the Phoenician city of Tire and kidnapped the royal daughter Europa here; The Persians do not know the Hellenic tribe; they must have been Cretans. Thus, for the insult inflicted by the Phoenicians, the Hellenes repaid with equal insult. After this, the Hellenes committed a new injustice: on a long ship they arrived in Aea, in Colchis, on the Phasis River, and there, in fulfillment of the assignment entrusted to them, they kidnapped the royal daughter Medea. The king of Colchis sent a herald to Hellas demanding his daughter back and satisfaction for her abduction; but the Hellenes responded that the Phoenicians had not paid them anything for the abduction of the Argive woman Io, and therefore the Colchians would not receive any satisfaction from them.

3. In the next generation, according to the stories of the Persians, Priam's son Alexander, having learned about what had happened, had the desire to kidnap a woman from Hellas for himself, being fully convinced of the impunity of the kidnapping, for the kidnappers, the Hellenes, had not been punished. He kidnapped Elena. The Hellenes first of all decided to send ambassadors to Asia demanding the return of Helen and the payment of a fine for the kidnapping. But in response to these demands, they were reminded of the kidnapping of Medea, with reproach that they themselves did not pay any fine and did not agree to the extradition of the kidnapped woman, while they would like to receive satisfaction from others.

4. Until now, there have been kidnappings of individuals on both sides, and from now on the Hellenes become gravely guilty: they invade Asia with an army before the Persians invaded Europe. In general, the Persians consider the abduction of women to be the work of insolent people, and revenge for the abducted, in their opinion, is befitting of fools; It is not at all proper for prudent people to take care of the kidnapped, for women would not be kidnapped if they did not want it themselves. That is why the inhabitants of Asia, say the Persians, did not pay any attention to the abduction of their women, while the Hellenes, because of one woman, a Lacedaemonian, gathered a huge army and, coming to Asia, destroyed the kingdom of Priam. From that time on, the Persians always considered the Hellenes their enemies: considering Europe and the Hellenes as a separate country, they appropriated Asia with the peoples living in it.

5. This is what the Persians say, calling the destruction of Troy the reason for their enmity towards the Hellenes. Regarding Io, the Phoenicians do not agree with the Persians. They did not take her to Egypt by force, the Phoenicians say, but in Argos she entered into a relationship with the owner of the ship, then, noticing her pregnancy and not wanting to reveal it for fear of her parents, she voluntarily sailed with the Phoenicians. These are the stories of the Persians and Phoenicians. For my part, I will not enter into a discussion of whether it was this way or that way, but I will name the person who I consider the first offender of Hellas, and I will continue my story, equally observing small and large cities, for the once large cities subsequently became small, and vice versa : Cities that were significant in my time were previously small. I know that human happiness is fickle, and therefore I will mention both large and small cities.

6. Croesus was a Lydian by birth, the son of Alyattes, and ruled over the peoples on this side of the river Halys, which flows from the south between the Syrians and Paphlagonians and flows north into what is now called the Euxine Pontus. Of all the barbarians known to us, Croesus was the first to subjugate some of the Hellenes to his power, forcing them to pay tribute, and entered into friendship with others. He conquered the Ionians, Aeolians and Dorians living in Asia, and made friends among the Lacedaemonians. Before the reign of Croesus, all the Hellenes were free, for the invasion of the Cimmerians, which preceded Croesus long before and reached Jovia, was not a conquest of states, but only a predatory raid.

7. Having initially belonged to the Heraclides, power later passed to the family of Croesus, to the so-called Mermnads, as follows. The ruler of Sardis was Candaules, called Myrsilus by the Greeks, a descendant of Alcaeus, the son of Hercules. Agron, son of Ninus, grandson of Bel, great-grandson of Alcaeus, was the first king of Sardis from the Heraclidean family, and Candaules, son of Myrs, the last. The rulers who reigned in this country before Agron descended from Lydas, the son of Atys, after whom the entire Lydian people, formerly called the Maeons, are named. It was they who invested the Heraclides with the power that came to them through the saying of the oracle. The Heraclides descended from the slave girl Iardan and Hercules, ruled the country in twenty-two generations for five hundred and five years in unbroken succession from father to son until Candaules, son of Myrs.

8. This Candaules passionately loved his wife and therefore imagined that he owned the most beautiful woman in the world. The king had a spearman, the son of Dascylus, Gyges, towards whom the king was very disposed; Candaules confided his most important matters to him and, among other things, extolled his wife’s beauty. A short time later, Candaules was destined to die, the king turned to Gyges with the following speech: “It seems to me, Gyges, that you do not trust my words about the beauty of my wife, for a person’s hearing is not as trusting as his sight; so try to see her naked.” In response to this, Gyges cried out: “I hear foolish speech from you, lord! Are you really telling me to look at my naked mistress? After all, along with the dress, a woman takes off her shame. People have long had wonderful sayings; lessons should be drawn from them; Among the sayings is the following: “Everyone look after his own.” I believe that your wife is the most beautiful woman, and please do not ask me what is unlawful.”