Auditory and visual sensations are. Types of sensations - static-dynamic, auditory, visual, tactile. "Who sings louder?"

Feel- these are the properties of the objects and phenomena of the surrounding world that are currently affecting the brain at the moment, reflected in the cerebral cortex.

Sensations are inherent not only to humans, they are the property of all life on Earth, and the sensations of animals are sometimes more subtle than those of humans.

Feelings can be divided into three large groups:

1) sensations that reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, skin;

2) sensations that reflect the state of the body: organic, balance, motor;

3) sensations that are a combination of several sensations (tactile), as well as sensations of various origins (for example, pain).

visual sensations.

The light-sensitive organ of the eye is the retina, which contains two types of cells - rods and cones. The rods are responsible for the perception of light and function during the day, and the cones are colors and work at dusk.

Auditory sensations.

Air vibrations, entering the ear, cause vibrations of the eardrum, and then through the middle ear are transmitted to the inner where the cochlea is located - the organ of sound perception.

Feelings:

2) musical

3) speech (combine musical sounds and noises).

Taste sensations.

They arise as a result of exposure to receptors of substances dissolved in water or saliva.

Taste buds are located on the surface of the tongue, pharynx and palate, which are able to distinguish four types of elementary taste sensations: sweet, sour, bitter, salty.

Olfactory sensations.

Receptors are olfactory cells located in the nasal cavity. Skin sensations. Kinds:

1) temperature (the ability to distinguish between changes in air temperature, and those areas of the skin that are covered with clothes are most sensitive);

2) tactile (touch);

3) vibrational (impact on the surface of the skin of air vibrations).

2. Organic sensations.

Receptors are located in the walls of internal organs. The most common sensations are thirst, hunger, nausea, etc.

Feelings of balance.

The receptor is the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear, which gives signals about the position of the head.

Motor sensations.

Their receptors are found in muscles, ligaments, tendons.

Tactile sensations.

They are a combination of such sensations as skin and motor. Pain has two origins:

1) irritation of certain points of pain: for example, a skin burn;

2) arise as a result of exposure to any analyzer of a superstrong stimulus: for example, a strong smell of paint can cause a headache.

Types of sensations. Already the ancient Greeks distinguished five sense organs and their corresponding sensations: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory. Modern science has significantly expanded our understanding of the types of human sensations. Currently, there are about two dozen different analyzer systems that reflect the impact of the external and internal environment on receptors.

visual sensations - it is the sensation of light and color. Everything we see has some color. Only a completely transparent object that we cannot see can be colorless. Colors come in achromatic(white and black and shades of gray in between) and chromatic(various shades of red, yellow, green, blue).

Visual sensations arise as a result of the action of light rays (electromagnetic waves) on the sensitive part of our eye. The light-sensitive organ of the eye is the retina, which contains two types of cells - rods and cones, so named for their external shape. There are a lot of such cells in the retina - about 130 rods and 7 million cones.

In daylight, only cones are active (for rods, such light is too bright). As a result, we see colors, i.e. there is a sensation of chromatic colors - all colors of the spectrum. In low light (at dusk), the cones stop working (there is not enough light for them), and vision is carried out only by the rod apparatus - a person sees mostly gray colors (all transitions from white to black, i.e. achromatic colors).

Color has a different effect on the well-being and performance of a person, on the success of educational activities. Psychologists note that the most acceptable color for painting the walls of classrooms is orange-yellow, which creates a cheerful, upbeat mood, and green, which creates an even, calm mood. Red excites, dark blue depresses, and both tire the eyes. In some cases, people experience violations of normal color perception. The reasons for this may be heredity, diseases and eye injury. The most common is red-green blindness, called color blindness (after the English scientist D. Dalton, who first described this phenomenon). Colorblind people do not distinguish between red and green, do not understand why people designate a color with two words. Such a feature of vision as color blindness should be taken into account when choosing a profession. Color-blind people cannot be drivers, pilots, they cannot be painters and fashion designers, etc. A complete lack of sensitivity to chromatic colors is very rare. The less light, the worse a person sees. Therefore, one should not read in poor lighting, at dusk, so as not to cause excessive eye strain, which can be harmful to vision, contribute to the development of myopia, especially in children and schoolchildren.

auditory sensations occur with the help of the organ of hearing. There are three types of auditory sensations: speech, music And noises. In these types of sensations, the sound analyzer identifies four qualities: sound power(loud-weak), height(high Low), timbre(the peculiarity of a voice or musical instrument), sound duration(playing time) and tempo-rhythmic features successive sounds.

Rumor to speech sounds called phonemic. It is formed depending on the speech environment in which the child is brought up. Mastering a foreign language involves the development of a new system of phonemic hearing. The developed phonemic hearing of the child significantly affects the accuracy of written speech, especially in elementary school. Ear for music the child is brought up and formed, as well as speech hearing. Here, the early introduction of the child to the musical culture of mankind is of great importance.

Noises can cause a certain emotional mood in a person (the sound of rain, the rustle of leaves, the howling of the wind), sometimes they serve as a signal of approaching danger (the hissing of a snake, the menacing barking of a dog, the rumble of a moving train) or joy (the clatter of a child’s feet, the steps of an approaching loved one, the thunder of fireworks) . In school practice, one often encounters the negative effect of noise: it tires the human nervous system.

vibration sensations reflect vibrations of an elastic medium. A person receives such sensations, for example, when touching the lid of a sounding piano with his hand. Vibratory sensations usually do not play an important role for a person and are very poorly developed. However, they reach a very high level of development in many deaf people, with which they partially replace the missing hearing.

Olfactory sensations. The ability to smell is called the sense of smell. The organs of smell are special sensitive cells that are located deep in the nasal cavity. Separate particles of various substances enter the nose along with the air that we inhale. This is how we get olfactory sensations. In modern man, olfactory sensations play a relatively minor role. But deaf-deaf people use their sense of smell, as sighted people use sight with hearing: they identify familiar places by smell, recognize familiar people, receive danger signals, etc. A person’s olfactory sensitivity is closely related to taste, helps to recognize the quality of food. Olfactory sensations warn a person about an air environment dangerous for the body (smell of gas, burning). The incense of objects has a great influence on the emotional state of a person. The existence of the perfume industry is entirely due to the aesthetic need of people for pleasant smells.

Taste sensations arise with the help of the organs of taste - taste buds located on the surface of the tongue, pharynx and palate. There are four types of basic taste sensations: sweet, bitter, sour, salty. The variety of taste depends on the nature of the combinations of these sensations: bitter-salty, sour-sweet, etc. A small number of qualities of taste sensations does not mean, however, that taste sensations are limited. Within the limits of salty, sour, sweet, bitter, a whole range of shades arise, each of which gives a new originality to taste sensations. Taste sensations of a person are highly dependent on the feeling of hunger, tasteless food seems tastier in a state of hunger. Taste sensations are very dependent on olfactory ones. With a severe cold, any, even the most beloved, dish seems tasteless. The tip of the tongue feels sweet best. The edges of the tongue are sensitive to sour, and its base to bitter.

Skin sensations - tactile (sensation of touch) and temperature(feelings of warmth or cold). On the surface of the skin there are different types of nerve endings, each of which gives a feeling of either touch, or cold, or heat. The sensitivity of different parts of the skin to each type of irritation is different. Touch is most felt on the tip of the tongue and on the fingertips, the back is less sensitive to touch. The most sensitive to the effects of heat and cold are the skin of those parts of the body that are usually covered by clothing, the lower back, abdomen, and chest. Temperature sensations have a very pronounced emotional tone. So, average temperatures are accompanied by a positive feeling, the nature of the emotional coloring for heat and cold is different: cold is experienced as an invigorating feeling, warmth as a relaxing one. The temperature of high indicators, both in the direction of cold and heat, causes negative emotional experiences.

Visual, auditory, vibrational, gustatory, olfactory and skin sensations reflect the influence of the external world, therefore the organs of all these sensations are located on the surface of the body or near it. Without these sensations, we could not know anything about the world around us. Another group of sensations tells us about the changes, condition and movement in our own body. These feelings include motor, organic, balance sensations, tactile, pain. Without these sensations, we would not know anything about ourselves.

Motor (or kinesthetic) sensations - These are sensations of movement and position of body parts. Thanks to the activity of the motor analyzer, a person gets the opportunity to coordinate and control his movements. Receptors for motor sensations are located in the muscles and tendons, as well as in the fingers, tongue and lips, since it is these organs that carry out precise and subtle working and speech movements.

The development of kinesthetic sensations is one of the important tasks of training. Labor, physical education, drawing, drawing, reading lessons should be planned taking into account the possibilities and prospects for the development of the motor analyzer. For mastering movements, their aesthetic expressive side is of great importance. Children master movements and, consequently, their bodies in dancing, rhythmic gymnastics and other sports that develop the beauty and ease of movement. Without the development of movements and their mastery, educational and labor activity is impossible. The formation of speech movement, the correct motor image of the word increases the culture of students, improves the literacy of written speech. Teaching a foreign language requires the development of such motor speech movements that are not typical for the Russian language.

organic sensations tell us about the work of our body, our internal organs - the esophagus, stomach, intestines and many others, in the walls of which the corresponding receptors are located. While we are full and healthy, we do not notice any organic sensations at all. They appear only when something is disturbed in the work of the body. For example, if a person has eaten something that is not very fresh, the work of his stomach will be disrupted, and he will immediately feel it: there will be pain in the abdomen.

Hunger, thirst, nausea, pain, sexual sensations, sensations related to the activity of the heart, breathing, etc. These are all organic sensations. Without them, we would not be able to recognize any disease in time and help our body cope with it.

“There is no doubt,” said I.P. Pavlov, “that not only the analysis of the external world is important for the organism, it also needs signaling upwards and analysis of what is happening in itself.”

tactile sensations- a combination of skin and motor sensations when touching objects that is, when touched by a moving hand. A small child begins to explore the world with touch, feeling objects. This is one of the important sources of obtaining information about the objects surrounding it.

In people deprived of sight, touch is one of the most important means of orientation and cognition. As a result of practice, it reaches great perfection. Such people can thread a needle, do modeling, simple design, even sewing, cooking. The combination of skin and motor sensations arising from the palpation of objects, i.e. when touched by a moving hand, is called touch. The organ of touch is the hand.

Feelings of balance reflect the position occupied by our body in space. When we first sit on a two-wheeled bicycle, stand on skates, roller skates, water skis, the most difficult thing is to keep our balance and not fall. The sense of balance is given to us by an organ located in the inner ear. It looks like a snail shell and is called labyrinth. When the position of the body changes, a special fluid (lymph) oscillates in the labyrinth of the inner ear, called vestibular apparatus. The organs of balance are closely connected with other internal organs. With a strong overexcitation of the balance organs, nausea, vomiting (the so-called sea or air sickness) are observed. With regular training, the stability of the balance organs increases significantly. The vestibular apparatus gives signals about the movement and position of the head. If the labyrinth is damaged, a person can neither stand, nor sit, nor walk, he will fall all the time.

Pain have a protective value: they signal to a person about the trouble that has arisen in his body. If there was no sensation of pain, a person would not even feel serious injuries. Complete insensitivity to pain is a rare anomaly, and it brings a person serious trouble. Pain sensations are of a different nature. First, there are “pain points” (special receptors) located on the surface of the skin and in the internal organs and muscles. Mechanical damage to the skin, muscles, diseases of internal organs give a feeling of pain. Secondly, sensations of pain arise under the action of a superstrong stimulus on any analyzer. Blinding light, deafening sound, intense cold or heat radiation, a very pungent odor also cause pain.

There are various classifications of sensations. The classification according to the modality of sensations (the specificity of the sense organs) is widespread - this is the division of sensations into visual, auditory, vestibular, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, motor, visceral. There are intermodal sensations - synesthesia. Ch. Sherrington's classification is well-known, distinguishing the following types of sensations:

exteroceptive sensations (arising from the action of external stimuli on receptors located on the surface of the body, from the outside);

proprioceptive (kinesthetic) sensations (reflecting the movement and relative position of body parts with the help of receptors located in muscles, tendons, articular bags);

interoceptive (organic) sensations - arising from the reflection of metabolic processes in the body with the help of specialized receptors.

Despite the variety of sensations that arise during the operation of the sense organs, one can find a number of fundamentally common features in their structure and functioning. In general, it can be said that analyzers are a set of interacting formations of the peripheral and central nervous systems that receive and analyze information about phenomena occurring both inside and outside the body.

The classification of sensations is made on several grounds. By the presence or absence of direct contact of the receptor with the stimulus that causes sensation, distant and contact reception are distinguished. Vision, hearing, smell are related to distant reception. These types of sensations provide orientation in the nearest environment. Taste, pain, tactile sensations - contact.

By location on the surface of the body, in muscles and tendons or inside the body, respectively, exteroception (visual, auditory, tactile, etc.), proprioception (sensations from muscles, tendons) and interoception (sensation of hunger, thirst) are distinguished.

According to the time of occurrence during the evolution of the animal world, ancient and new sensitivity are distinguished. So, distant reception can be considered new in comparison with contact, but in the structure of the contact analyzers themselves, more ancient and newer functions are distinguished. Pain sensitivity is more ancient than tactile.

Consider the basic patterns of sensations. These include thresholds, adaptation, sensitization, interaction, contrast, and synesthesia.

Thresholds of sensitivity. Sensations arise when exposed to a stimulus of a certain intensity. The psychological characteristic of the "dependence" between the intensity of sensation and the strength of stimuli is expressed by the concept of the threshold of sensations, or the threshold of sensitivity.

In psychophysiology, two types of thresholds are distinguished: the threshold of absolute sensitivity and the threshold of sensitivity to discrimination. That smallest stimulus strength at which a barely noticeable sensation first occurs is called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity. That greatest strength of the stimulus, at which there is still a sensation of this type, is called the upper absolute threshold of sensitivity.

Thresholds limit the zone of sensitivity to stimuli. For example, of all electromagnetic vibrations, the eye is capable of reflecting wavelengths from 390 (violet) to 780 (red) millimicrons;

There is an inverse relationship between sensitivity (threshold) and the strength of the stimulus: the greater the force needed to create a sensation, the lower the sensitivity of a person. Sensitivity thresholds are individual for each person.

An experimental study of sensitivity to discrimination made it possible to formulate the following law: the ratio of the surplus strength of the stimulus to the main one is a constant value for this type of sensitivity. So, in the sensation of pressure (tactile sensitivity), this increase is equal to 1/30 of the weight of the original stimulus. This means that 3.4 g must be added to 100 g in order to feel a change in pressure, and 34 g to 1 kg. For auditory sensations, this constant is 1/10, for visual sensations, 1/100.

Adaptation- adaptation of sensitivity to a constantly acting stimulus, manifested in a decrease or increase in thresholds. In life, the phenomenon of adaptation is well known to everyone. The first minute a person enters the river, the water seems cold to him. Then the feeling of cold disappears, the water seems warm enough. This is observed in all types of sensitivity, except for pain. Staying in absolute darkness increases the sensitivity to light in 40 minutes by about 200,000 times. The interaction of sensations. (Interaction of sensations is a change in the sensitivity of one analyzer system under the influence of the activity of another analyzer system. The change in sensitivity is explained by cortical connections between analyzers, largely by the law of simultaneous induction). The general pattern of the interaction of sensations is as follows: weak stimuli in one analyzer system increase sensitivity in another. An increase in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers, as well as systematic exercises, is called sensitization.

Depending on the nature of the stimuli acting on a given analyzer, and on the nature of the sensations arising in this case, separate types of sensations are distinguished.
First of all, it is necessary to single out a group of five types of sensations, which are a reflection of the properties of objects and phenomena of the external world - visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory and skin. The second group consists of three types of sensations that reflect the state of the body - organic, balance sensations, motor. The third group consists of two types of special sensations - tactile and pain, which are either a combination of several sensations (tactile.), Or sensations of different origin (pain).
visual sensations. Visual sensations - sensations of light and color - play a leading role in a person's knowledge of the external world. Scientists have found that 80 to 90 percent of information from the outside world enters the brain through the visual analyzer, 80 percent of all work operations are carried out under visual control. Thanks to visual sensations, we learn the shape and color of objects, their size, volume, remoteness. Visual sensations help a person navigate in space, coordinate movements. With the help of sight, a person learns to read and write. Books, cinema, theater, television reveal the whole world to us. No wonder the great naturalist Helmholtz believed that of all the human senses, the eye is the best gift and the most wonderful product of the creative forces of nature.
Visual sensations arise as a result of the action of light rays (electromagnetic waves) on the sensitive part of our eye. The retina is the light-sensitive organ of the eye. Light affects two types of photosensitive cells located in the retina - rods and ta. cones (Fig. 17) so named for their external shape. Light stimulation is converted into a nervous process, which is transmitted along the optic nerve to the visual center of the cortex in the back of the brain. The number of photosensitive cells in the retina is very large - about 130 million rods and 7 million cones.
Rods are much more sensitive to light than cones, but cones make it possible to distinguish all the richness of shades of color, while rods are deprived of this. In daylight, only cones are active (such light is too bright for rods) - as a result, we see colors (there is a feeling of chromatic colors, that is, all colors of the spectrum). In low light (at dusk), the cones stop working (there is not enough light for them), and vision is carried out only by the rod apparatus - a person sees mostly gray colors (all transitions from white to black, i.e., achromatic colors). There is a disease in which the work of the rods is disrupted and a person sees very poorly or does not see anything at dusk and at night, and during the day his vision remains relatively normal. This disease is called “night blindness”, since chickens and pigeons do not have sticks and see almost nothing at dusk. Owls, bats, on the contrary, have only sticks in the retina - during the day these animals are almost blind.
Color has a different effect on the well-being and performance of a person. It has been established, for example, that the optimal coloring of the workplace can increase labor productivity by 20-25 percent. Color also has a different effect on the success of educational work. The most optimal color for painting the walls of classrooms is orange-yellow, which creates a cheerful, upbeat mood, and green, which creates an even, calm mood. Red color excites; dark blue is depressing; both of them tire the eyes.
An irritant for the visual analyzer are light waves with a wavelength of 390 to 760 millimicrons (millionths of a millimeter). The sensation of different colors is caused by different wavelengths. Light with a wavelength of about 700 millimicrons gives a sensation of red, 580 millimicrons - yellow, 530 millimicrons - green, 450 millimicrons - blue and 400 millimicrons - violet.
In some cases, people have abnormal color perception (about 4 percent of men and 0.5 percent of women). The reason is heredity, diseases and eye injury. The most common is red-green blindness, called color blindness (after Dalton, who first described this phenomenon). Color-blind people do not distinguish between red and green, perceive them as a dirty yellow color, wondering why other people designate this color with two words. Color blindness is a serious visual impairment that must be taken into account when choosing a profession. Colorblind cannot be
admitted to all professions of a driver's type (chauffeurs, machinists, pilots), they cannot be artists, painters, fashion designers. Very rarely there is a complete lack of sensitivity to chromatic colors: to such a person all objects seem to be painted in gray colors, only different light lots (the sky is light gray, the grass is gray, red flowers are dark gray, as in a black and white movie).
The sensation of color differs in lightness, depending on the amount of light that is reflected or absorbed by the surface of the colored objects. Surfaces painted in blue and yellow reflect light rays better than those painted in green or red. Black velvet reflects only 0.03 percent of the light, while white paper reflects 85 percent of the incident light.
If you paint the sectors of the circle in the seven primary colors of the spectrum, then with a quick rotation of the circle, all colors will merge and the circle will appear gray. This is because the image of the individual colors of the spectrum that arises in the visual analyzer does not immediately disappear after the cessation of the stimulus. It continues to be stored for some time (about 1/5 s) in the form of a so-called sequential image. Thus, the sensation of flickering of individual stimuli disappears and their merging occurs. The demonstration of films is based on this, where the speed of 24 frames per second is perceived as a drawing that has come to life.
A person is able to see objects that are at different distances from the eye. The optical properties of the eye change during the transition from free looking into the distance to looking at close objects. This ability of the eye to adapt itself to seeing clearly at different distances is called the accommodation of the eye.
The less light, the worse a person sees. Therefore, you can not read in poor lighting. At dusk, it is necessary to turn on electric lighting earlier so as not to cause excessive stress in the work of the eye, which can be harmful to vision, and contribute to the development of myopia in schoolchildren.
Special studies speak of the importance of lighting conditions in the origin of myopia: in schools located on wide streets, there are usually fewer nearsighted people than in schools located on narrow streets built up with houses. In schools where the ratio of window area to floor area in classrooms was 15 percent, there were more nearsighted people than in schools where the ratio was 20 percent.
Auditory sensations. The irritant for the auditory analyzer is sound waves - longitudinal vibrations of air particles propagating in all directions from the sound source. When air vibrations enter the ear, they cause the eardrum to vibrate. The oscillation of the latter through the middle ear is transmitted to the inner ear, in which there is a special apparatus - the cochlea - for the perception of sounds. The human hearing organ responds to sounds in the range from 16 to 20,000 vibrations per second. The ear is most sensitive to sounds of about 1000 vibrations per second.
The brain end of the auditory analyzer is located in the temporal lobes of the cortex. Hearing, like vision, plays an important role in human life. The ability of verbal communication depends on hearing. With hearing loss, people usually lose the ability to speak as well. Speech can be restored, but on the basis of muscle control, which in this case will replace auditory control. This is done through special training. Therefore, some deaf-deaf people can speak satisfactorily without hearing sounds at all.
There are three characteristics of auditory sensations. Auditory sensations reflect the pitch of the sound, which depends on the frequency of vibrations of sound waves, the volume, which depends on the amplitude of their vibrations, and timbre - a reflection of the form of vibrations of sound waves. The timbre of sound is the quality that distinguishes sounds that are equal in pitch and loudness. Different timbres differ from each other in the voices of people, the sounds of individual musical instruments.
All auditory sensations can be reduced to three types - speech, musical and noise. Musical sounds - singing and sounds of most musical instruments. Examples of noise are the noise of a motor, the rumble of a moving train, the crackling of a typewriter, etc. Speech sounds combine musical sounds (vowels) and noise. (Consonants).
A person quickly develops phonemic hearing for the sounds of his native language. It is more difficult to perceive a foreign language, since each language differs in its phonemic features. The ear of many foreigners simply does not distinguish the words "Flame", "dust", "drank" - the words for the Russian ear are completely dissimilar. A resident of Southeast Asia will not hear the difference in the words "boots" and "dogs".
Strong and prolonged noise causes significant loss of nervous energy in people, damages the cardiovascular system - absent-mindedness appears, hearing decreases, performance decreases, and nervous disorders are observed. Noise has a negative effect on mental activity. Therefore, special measures are being taken in our country to combat noise. In particular, in a number of cities it is forbidden to give automobile and railway signals unnecessarily, it is forbidden to break the silence after 11 pm.
Taste sensations. Taste sensations are caused by the action on taste buds of substances dissolved in saliva or water. A dry piece of sugar placed on a dry tongue will not give any taste sensations.
Taste buds are taste buds located on the surface of the tongue, pharynx and palate. There are four kinds; accordingly, there are four elementary taste sensations: the sensation of sweet, sour, salty and bitter: The variety of taste depends on the nature of the combination of these qualities and on the addition of olfactory sensations to the taste sensations: combining sugar, salt, quinine and oxalic acid in different proportions, it was possible to simulate some of the taste sensations.
Olfactory sensations. Olfactory organs are olfactory cells located in the nasal cavity. Irritants for the olfactory analyzer are particles of odorous substances that enter the nasal cavity along with the air.
In modern man, olfactory sensations play a relatively minor role. But with damage to hearing and vision, the sense of smell, along with other remaining intact analyzers, becomes especially important. The blindly deaf use their sense of smell, just as the sighted use their eyesight: they identify familiar places by smell and recognize familiar people.
Skin sensations. There are two types of skin sensations - tactile (sensations of touch) and temperature (sensations of heat and cold). Accordingly, on the surface of the skin there are different types of nerve endings, each of which gives the sensation of only touch, only cold, only heat. The sensitivity of different parts of the skin to each of these types of irritations is different. Touch is most felt on the tip of the tongue and on the fingertips; the back is less sensitive to touch. The skin of those parts of the body that are usually covered by clothing is most sensitive to the effects of heat and cold.
A peculiar type of skin sensations is vibrational sensations that occur when the surface of the body is exposed to air vibrations produced by moving or oscillating bodies. In normally hearing people, this type of sensation is poorly developed. However, with hearing loss, especially in the deaf-deaf, this type of sensation develops noticeably and serves to orient such people in the world around them. Through vibrational sensations, they feel music, even recognize familiar melodies, feel a knock on the door, talk by tapping Morse code with their foot and perceiving floor shaking, they learn about approaching transport on the street, etc.
Organic sensations Organic sensations include sensations of hunger, thirst, satiety, nausea, suffocation, etc. The corresponding receptors are located in the walls of internal organs: the esophagus, stomach, and intestines. During the normal functioning of the internal organs, individual sensations merge into one sensation, which constitutes the general well-being of a person.
Feelings of balance. The organ of balance sensation is the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear, which gives signals about the movement and position of the head. The normal functioning of the organs of balance is very important for a person. For example, when determining the suitability for a specialty of a pilot, especially an astronaut pilot, the activity of the balance organs is always checked. The organs of balance are closely connected with other internal organs. With a strong overexcitation of the balance organs, nausea and vomiting are observed (the so-called sea or air sickness). However, with regular training, the stability of the balance organs increases significantly.
Motor sensations. Motor, or kinesthetic, sensations are sensations of movement and position of body parts. Receptors for the motor analyzer are located in muscles, ligaments, tendons, and articular surfaces. Motor sensations signal the degree of muscle contraction and the position of parts of our body, for example, how much the arm is bent at the shoulder, elbow, etc.
Tactile sensations. Tactile sensations are a combination, a combination of skin and motor sensations when palpating objects, that is, when a moving hand touches them. The sense of touch is of great importance in human labor activity, especially when performing labor operations that require great accuracy. With the help of touch, palpation is the knowledge of the world by a small child. This is one of the important sources of obtaining information about the objects surrounding it.
In people deprived of sight, touch is one of the most important means of orientation and cognition. As a result of practice, it reaches great perfection. Such people can deftly peel potatoes, thread a needle, do simple modeling, even sewing.
Pain sensations. Pain sensations are of a different nature. Firstly, there are special receptors (“pain points”) located on the surface of the skin and in the internal organs and muscles. Mechanical damage to the skin, muscles, diseases of internal organs give a feeling of pain. Secondly, sensations of pain arise under the action of a superstrong stimulus on any analyzer. Blinding light, deafening sound, intense cold or heat radiation, a very sharp odor also cause pain.
Painful sensations are very unpleasant, but they are our reliable guard, warning us of danger, signaling trouble in the body. If it were not for the pain, a person would often not notice a serious ailment or dangerous injuries. Not for nothing did the ancient Greeks say: "Pain is the watchdog of health." Complete insensitivity to pain is a rare anomaly, and it brings a person not joy, but serious trouble.

In modern science, there are different approaches to the classification of sensations.

English scientist Ch.Sherrington identified groups of sensations depending on localization(location) receptors:

1. Exteroceptive- receptors are located on the surface of the body: visual, auditory, skin, olfactory, tactile.

2. Interoceptive- receptors are located on the internal organs: sensations of hunger, thirst, nausea, satiety, suffocation. Associated with the experience of positive and negative emotions.

3. proprioceptive- receptors are found in muscles, ligaments, joints, tendons. These are sensations of movement, the position of body parts.

By the presence or absence of contact with the irritant allocate:

1. distant sensations - without direct contact with the stimulus: visual, auditory, olfactory.

2. contact sensations - when the sense organs come into contact with the stimulus gustatory, cutaneous and kinesthetic(motor).

depending on the nature of the stimulus affecting this analyzer, and from character resulting sensations distinguish the following groups:

1st group- sensations that are a reflection of the properties of objects and phenomena of the external world: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory and skin.

2nd group- sensations reflecting the state of the body - organic, balance, motor.

3rd group- special sensations: tactile, representing a combination of several sensations, and pain - sensations of various origins.

Let us give characteristics to certain types of sensations.

A) visual sensations are sensations of light and color. They arise as a result of exposure to light rays on the sensitive part of our eye - the retina. There are two types of cells in the retina - sticks(about 130 million) and cones(about 7 million). In daylight, only the cones are active; at night, the rods are active. Cones make it possible to see the colors of the spectrum (chromatic vision) and their shades. Rods allow you to see gray colors (achromatic) - from white to black. The less light, the worse a person sees. Therefore, it is impossible to read in poor lighting, at dusk, so as not to cause excessive eye strain, which can provoke the development of myopia. In addition, the reflection of black and white colors and colors evokes a certain emotional tone. For example, green - soothes, blue - creates a feeling of open space, red - excites, causes anxiety, black - depresses, orange-yellow - invigorates, creates high spirits, dark blue - depresses. Also, red and dark blue colors tire the eyes. Knowing this, you can use the color scheme to paint the walls of the classroom in order to increase the efficiency of the student.

B) auditory sensations are sensations that occur under the influence of sound waves that cause vibrations of the eardrum. The vibrations are transmitted to the inner ear, which contains a special apparatus - the cochlea - for the perception of sounds.

Distinguish 3 types of auditory sensations: speech, music and noises. In these types of sensations, the sound analyzer distinguishes 4 qualities:

The strength of the sound (loud - weak); depends on the amplitude of oscillations.

Height (high - low); depends on the oscillation frequency.

Sound duration (sounding time).

Musical sensations allow us to distinguish the qualities of sound (strength, pitch, timbre, duration). An ear for music is formed better if the child is introduced to music as soon as possible.

Speech sensations allow you to distinguish the sounds of speech. Hearing for speech sounds is called phonemic. It is formed depending on the speech environment in which the child is brought up. Mastering a foreign language is difficult, as it involves the development of a new system of phonemic hearing. Speech can evoke a certain emotional state.

Noise - the noise of a motor, train, thunder. Noises can cause a certain emotional mood (the sound of rain, the rustle of leaves); serve as a signal of danger (the hiss of a snake, the roar of a train) or joy (the steps of a loved one, the tramp of a child's feet). However, it has been noted that strong and prolonged noise causes significant loss of nervous energy in people, tires the nervous system, damages the cardiovascular system, causes absent-mindedness, reduces working capacity, and reduces hearing. Therefore, teachers should strive to maintain silence in the classroom.

B) taste sensations arise with the help of the organs of taste - taste buds located on the surface of the tongue, pharynx and palate. Most of the taste buds are on the tongue. In total, a person has about 3 thousand of them. There is everything 4 types major taste sensations: sweet, bitter, sour, salty. The variety of taste depends on the nature of the combinations of these sensations: bitter-salty, sour-sweet, etc. Different parts of the surface of the tongue are sensitive to different taste sensations: the back surface of the tongue - to bitter, on the sides - to sour and salty, the tip of the tongue - to sweet.

Taste sensations are caused by the action on taste buds of substances dissolved in saliva or water. Dry matter on a dry tongue does not give a taste sensation. In addition, anything that makes the atoms move faster, such as heat, enhances the taste experience. Therefore, hot coffee seems more bitter than cold, roasted salty lard is more salty, and hot meat dish is tastier than cold.

The taste of food is affected by well-being, headache, heat, cold, hunger (increases), satiety (weakens). In addition, taste sensations are never perceived in their pure form, they are always complicated by olfactory ones. Coffee, tea, tobacco, apples, oranges, lemons stimulate the organs of smell to a greater extent than taste.

D) olfactory sensations. The ability to smell is called the sense of smell. Olfactory sensations arise as a result of air particles entering the nasal cavity. In our nasal cavity, odors are perceived by sensory hairs on the olfactory membrane. These hairs are rooted in the mucous layer covering the membrane. The membrane is always wet. If it dries out, we won't be able to smell. If we just breathe, then the air stream bypasses the membrane. Therefore, in order to smell, we need to sniff, i.e. allow air to pass over the membrane.

There are 5 main types of odors which we can catch:

Floral (violet, rose, etc.)

Spicy (lemon, apple)

Putrid (cheese, rotten vegetables)

Roasted (coffee, cocoa)

Essential (alcohol, camphor).

In humans, the sense of smell is not as well developed as in animals. In the process of evolution, the human sense of smell is becoming weaker and weaker, and we are more dependent on visual sensations.

In our nose, the membrane occupies an area the size of a fingernail on both sides, but in a dog this membrane, if spread, will cover more than half of its body. In the human brain, cells that distinguish odors occupy a 20th part, in a dog - a third of the brain.

A person's weak sense of smell is compensated by a higher development of other sense organs. Deaf and deaf people have a better sense of smell. By smell, they recognize familiar people, receive signals of danger.

Olfactory sensations allow you to determine the quality of food, warn of danger (the smell of burning, gas), determine the chemical composition (perfumes). With hunger, as with taste sensations, sensitivity increases, with saturation it decreases.

D) Skin sensations. There are two types of skin sensations: tactile ( sensations of touch) and temperature(sensations of heat and cold). Tactile sensations provide knowledge about the quality of objects, temperature sensations regulate the body's heat exchange with the environment.

On the surface of the skin there are different types of nerve endings, each of which gives a feeling of only touch, only cold, only heat. The sensitivity of different areas of the skin to each of these types of stimuli is different. Touch is most felt on the tip of the tongue and on the fingertips. The back is less sensitive. To the effects of heat and cold, those areas of the skin that are usually covered by clothing (lower back, abdomen, chest) are most sensitive.

Temperature sensations have a very pronounced emotional tone. Average temperatures evoke positive feelings, cold is experienced as an invigorating feeling, warmth is relaxing. High rates of heat and cold cause negative emotions.

E ) Organic sensations. These include feelings of hunger, thirst, satiety, nausea, suffocation, sexual sensations. They tell us about the work of our body, our internal organs - the esophagus, intestines, etc., in the walls of which there are corresponding receptors. Without them, we would not be able to recognize violations in the work of our body in time and help it. When certain nutrients are lacking in the blood, hunger is felt. Then a signal comes to the "hunger center" located in the brain - the work of the stomach and intestines is activated. That is why a hungry person hears the rumbling of his stomach.

During the normal functioning of the internal organs, individual sensations merge into one sensation, which constitutes the general well-being of a person.

G) Feelings of balance. The organ of balance is the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear, which gives signals about the movement and position of the head. When we first ride a bicycle, put on skates, etc., it is very difficult for us to keep our balance. With regular training, the stability of the balance organs increases significantly. If the labyrinth is damaged, a person can neither stand nor walk, he will fall all the time. The organs of balance are connected with other internal organs. With a strong overexcitation of the balance organs, nausea, vomiting (seasickness) are observed.

H) Motor or kinesthetic sensations- sensations of movement and position of body parts. The receptors of the motor analyzer are located in the muscles, ligaments, tendons, articular surfaces, as well as in the fingers, tongue, lips (these organs carry out precise and subtle working and speech movements).

Motor sensations signal the degree of muscle contraction, how much, for example, an arm or leg is bent.

The development of motor sensations is one of the tasks of training. The lessons of labor, physical education, drawing, drafting, and rhythm are most conducive to this.

Without motor sensations, we could not normally perform movements, since the adaptation of actions to the external world and to each other requires signaling about every smallest detail of the act of movement.

I) tactile sensations- this is a combination of skin and motor sensations of objects, that is, when a moving hand touches them. The hand is the organ of touch. In people deprived of sight, touch is one of the important means of orientation and cognition. As a result of training, such people can engage in modeling, sewing, and cooking.

K) pain- signal a danger, trouble that has arisen in the human body, that is, they have a protective value. The Greeks said: Pain is the watchdog of health.

Pain sensations are of a different nature.

1. Exist "points of pain" (special receptors), located on the surface of the skin and in the internal organs and muscles. Mechanical damage to the skin, muscles, diseases of internal organs give these sensations.

2. They arise under the influence super strong stimulus for any analyzer. Deafening sound. Blinding light, strong smell, cold or heat can cause pain.

Complete insensitivity to pain is a rare anomaly and will bring a person into serious trouble.

3. Patterns of sensations.

Every person has an innate ability to feel. Feelings can be improved through practice. But even the most systematic training does not allow one to cross the limit beyond which a person no longer distinguishes objects, hears sounds, or smells.

A) Absolute thresholds.

For a sensation to arise, the irritation must reach a certain level. Too weak stimuli do not cause sensations.

That smallest, minimum strength of the stimulus, at which a barely noticeable sensation occurs, is called lower absolute threshold sensitivity.

The greatest strength of the stimulus at which a sensation of a given type still exists is called upper threshold of sensitivity. A further increase in the strength of the stimulus acting on our receptors causes only pain (super loud sound, blinding brightness).

The lower threshold of sensations determines the level of absolute sensitivity of this analyzer. There is an inverse relationship between absolute sensitivity and the threshold value: the lower the threshold value, the higher the sensitivity.

The sensitivity of the visual and auditory analyzer is very high.

The absolute sensitivity of certain analyzers varies from person to person. Sensitivity thresholds change throughout life: from birth they develop and reach their highest development by adolescence, and by old age the thresholds increase (hearing and vision deteriorate).

B) Another important characteristic of the analyzer is its ability to distinguish between changes in the strength of the stimulus. So-called distinction threshold.

The discrimination threshold is a relative value showing by what proportion the strength of the stimulus must increase in order for a person to feel a barely noticeable change in sensation (for example, if 10 people are added to a choir of 100 people, then we will feel the difference).

B. Ananiev pointed out that sensitivity to distinction is the source of a complex thought process - comparison.

C) The following pattern of sensations - adaptation(lat.-addictive). Adaptation in life is known to everyone. When we enter the water, the water at first seems cold, and after a while the feeling of cold disappears and the water seems warm. When we enter a dark corridor from a bright room, it takes time for our eyes to get used to and we begin to see. And vice versa, from darkness to a bright room. Coming from the street into the room, we feel all the smells, and after a while we no longer notice them. These examples indicate that the sensitivity of analyzers can change under the influence of active stimuli.

Adaptation- this is a change in the sensitivity of the sense organs under the influence of the action of the stimulus.

Distinguish 3 varieties this phenomenon:

1. complete disappearance of sensation during prolonged action of the stimulus (light load, watch on the arm, disappearance of smell, etc.)

2. dulling of sensation under the influence of a strong stimulus (hand in cold water, from darkness to bright light)

3. increased sensitivity under the influence of a weak stimulus (dark adaptation: eyes see better in the dark after a while; auditory adaptation - adaptation to silence).

The first two varieties are negative adaptation, as it leads to a decrease in the sensitivity of the analyzers. The third type of adaptation - positive, as it leads to an increase in sensitivity.

Adaptation helps to catch weak stimuli and protects the senses from excessive irritation.

Strong adaptation is observed in skin (tactile). Visual, olfactory, temperature sensations, weak - in auditory and pain. You can get used to the noise and pain, not pay attention to them, but you will not stop feeling them.

D) Sensations, as a rule, do not exist independently and are isolated from each other. The operation of one analyzer may affect the operation of another.

A change in the sensitivity of the analyzer under the influence of irritation of other sense organs is called interaction of sensations. The general pattern of the interaction of sensations is that weak stimuli increase, and strong ones decrease the sensitivity of the analyzers during their interaction. The sensitivity of the visual analyzer can be increased by weak musical sounds, rubbing the face with cold water, and sweet and sour taste sensations.

The increase in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers and exercises is called sensitization.

Physiologically, this is due to the fact that a weak stimulus causes an excitation process in the cortex, which easily radiates. As a result of the irradiation of the excitation process, the sensitivity of another analyzer increases. Under the influence of a strong stimulus, a process of excitation occurs, which tends to concentrate. According to the law of mutual induction, this leads to inhibition in the central sections of other analyzers and a decrease in sensitivity in them.

Weak taste sensations (sour) increase visual sensitivity, weak sound stimuli increase the color sensitivity of the eye, weak light stimuli enhance auditory sensations. This must be used in the learning process.

In addition, sensitization can be achieved through exercise. For example, music lessons develop pitch hearing.

Allocate two types of sensitization:

1. sensitization caused by necessity compensation sensory impairments (blindness, deafness)

2. sensitization caused by activity, the requirements of the profession (specialists in dyeing fabrics distinguish from 40 to 60 shades of black; tasters improve in olfactory and gustatory sensations, etc.)

Interactions of sensations are also manifested in synesthesia.

Synesthesia- this is the occurrence under the influence of irritation of one analyzer of a sensation characteristic of another analyzer.

For example, visual-auditory synesthesia - when exposed to sound stimuli, visual images arise. Less commonly, auditory sensations occur when exposed to the visual analyzer, taste - on the auditory. (For example, a lemon can cause a sour taste when tasted, or you can say the word "lemon" - and also feel the taste of lemon in your mouth.

We often say "pungent taste", "velvet voice", "screaming color", "sweet sounds". It's all synesthesia. Synesthesia is at the heart of color music.

Sensations are also influenced by previously acting stimuli.

Contrast- a change in the intensity and quality of sensations under the influence of a previous or concomitant stimulus.

With the simultaneous action of two stimuli, a simultaneous contrast. For example, the same figure appears lighter on a black background, and darker on a white one. A green object on a red background seems more saturated.

Consistent Contrast more widespread. After a cold, a thermal stimulus seems hot, after an sour one, sensitivity to a sweet one increases and vice versa.

4. The development of sensations.

Hearing develops under the influence of music and sound speech; music lessons

Clear pronunciation of words forms phonemic hearing

Painting classes contribute to the development of visual sensations

Remember to protect your eyesight (sufficient lighting, proper posture, do not read while lying down)

Remember to protect your hearing (better quiet than loud)

Observations in nature

Special exercises, games

Accounting for the individual characteristics of sensations in children (submission of material in various ways: by ear, through the organs of vision, skin, tactile, taste sensations, etc.)

V. Krutetsky Psychology p.89-101. I.Dubrovina Psychology pp.91-105. Synopsis pp. 96-103.

Auditory sensations 72

The special significance of hearing in humans is associated with the perception of speech and music.

Auditory sensations are a reflection of sound waves affecting the auditory receptor, which are generated by the sounding body and represent a variable condensation and rarefaction of air.

Sound waves have, firstly, different amplitude fluctuations. Under the amplitude of oscillation is meant the greatest deviation of the sounding body from the state of equilibrium or rest. The larger the amplitude of the oscillation, the stronger the sound, and, conversely, the smaller the amplitude, the weaker the sound. The strength of the sound is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude. This force also depends on the distance of the ear from the sound source and on the medium in which the sound propagates. To measure the strength of sound, there are special devices that make it possible to measure it in units of energy.

Sound waves are distinguished, secondly, by frequency or the duration of the oscillation. The wavelength is inversely proportional to the number of oscillations and directly proportional to the period of oscillation of the sound source. Waves of a different number of oscillations in 1 s or during the period of oscillation give sounds that are different in height: waves with oscillations of a large frequency (and a small period of oscillations) are reflected in the form of high sounds, waves with oscillations of a low frequency (and a large period of oscillations) are reflected in the form of low sounds.

The sound waves caused by the sounding body, the sound source, differ, thirdly, form fluctuations, i.e., the shape of that periodic curve in which the abscissas are proportional to time, and the ordinates are proportional to the removal of the oscillating point from its equilibrium position. The shape of the vibrations of a sound wave is reflected in the timbre of the sound - that specific quality by which sounds of the same height and strength on different instruments (piano, violin, flute, etc.) differ from each other.

The relationship between the shape of the vibration of a sound wave and the timbre is not unambiguous. If two tones have a different timbre, then we can definitely say that they are caused by vibrations of different shapes, but not vice versa. Tones can have exactly the same timbre, and, however, their form of vibrations can be different. In other words, the waveforms are more varied and numerous than the tones heard by the ear.

Auditory sensations can be evoked as periodical oscillatory processes, and non-periodic with irregularly changing unstable frequency and amplitude of oscillations. The former are reflected in musical sounds, the latter in noises.

The musical sound curve can be decomposed in a purely mathematical way using the Fourier method into separate, superimposed sinusoids. Any sound curve, being a complex oscillation, can be represented as the result of more or less sinusoidal oscillations, with the number of oscillations per second increasing, as a series of integers 1, 2, 3, 4. The lowest tone corresponding to 1 is called the main one. It has the same period as the complex sound. The remaining simple tones, which have twice, three times, four times, etc., more frequent vibrations, are called upper harmonic, or partial (partial), or overtones.

All audible sounds are divided into noises and musical sounds. The former reflect non-periodic oscillations of unstable frequency and amplitude, the latter - periodic oscillations. However, there is no sharp line between musical sounds and noises. The acoustic component of the noise often has a pronounced musical character and contains a variety of tones that are easily picked up by an experienced ear. The whistle of the wind, the squeal of a saw, various hissing noises with high tones included in them are sharply different from the hum and murmur noises characterized by low tones. The absence of a sharp boundary between tones and noises explains the fact that many composers are perfectly able to depict various noises with musical sounds (the murmur of a stream, the buzzing of a spinning wheel in the romances of F. Schubert, the sound of the sea, the clanging of weapons by N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, etc. ).

In the sounds of human speech, both noises and musical sounds are also represented.

The main properties of any sound are: 1) his volume 2) height and 3) timbre.

1. Volume.

Loudness depends on the strength, or amplitude, of the vibrations of the sound wave. The power of sound and loudness are not equivalent concepts. The strength of sound objectively characterizes the physical process, regardless of whether it is perceived by the listener or not; loudness - the quality of the perceived sound. If we arrange the volumes of the same sound in the form of a series increasing in the same direction as the strength of the sound, and be guided by the steps of the increase in volume perceived by the ear (with a continuous increase in the strength of the sound), then it turns out that the volume grows much more slowly than the strength of the sound.

According to the Weber-Fechner law, the loudness of a certain sound will be proportional to the logarithm of the ratio of its strength J to the strength of the same sound at the threshold of hearing J 0 :

In this equality, K is a proportionality factor, and L expresses a value characterizing the loudness of a sound whose strength is equal to J; it is commonly referred to as the sound level.

If the proportionality coefficient, which is an arbitrary value, is taken equal to one, then the sound level will be expressed in units called belov:

In practice, it turned out to be more convenient to use units 10 times smaller; These units are called decibels. The coefficient K in this case, obviously, equals 10. Thus:

The minimum increase in volume perceived by the human ear is approximately 1dB.<…>

It is known that the Weber-Fechner law loses its force with weak stimuli; therefore, the loudness level of very weak sounds does not quantify their subjective loudness.

According to the latest work, when determining the difference threshold, one should take into account the change in the pitch of sounds. For low tones, the volume rises much faster than for high tones.

The quantitative measurement of the loudness directly perceived by our hearing is not as accurate as the auditory estimate of the pitch. However, dynamic designations have long been used in music, which serve to determine the magnitude of loudness in practice. These are the designations: prr(piano-pianissimo), pp(pianissimo), R(piano), tr(mezzo-piano), mf(mezzo forte), ff(fortissimo), fff(forte-fortissimo). Consecutive designations on this scale mean approximately doubling the volume.

A person can, without any preliminary training, evaluate changes in loudness by a certain (small) number of times (by 2, 3, 4 times). In this case, doubling the volume is obtained approximately just with an increase of about 20 dB. Further evaluation of the increase in volume (more than 4 times) is no longer possible. Studies on this issue have given results that are sharply at odds with the Weber-Fechner law. 73 They also showed significant individual differences in the assessment of loudness doubling.

When exposed to sound in the hearing aid, adaptation processes occur that change its sensitivity. However, in the field of auditory sensations, adaptation is very small and reveals significant individual deviations. The effect of adaptation is especially strong when there is a sudden change in the strength of the sound. This is the so-called contrast effect.

Loudness is usually measured in decibels. SN Rzhevkin points out, however, that the decibel scale is not satisfactory for quantifying natural loudness. For example, the noise on a full-speed metro train is estimated at 95 dB, while the ticking of a clock at a distance of 0.5 m is estimated at 30 dB. Thus, on the decibel scale, the ratio is only 3, while for immediate sensation the first noise is almost immeasurably greater than the second.<… >

2. Height.

The pitch of a sound reflects the frequency of the sound wave. Not all sounds are perceived by our ear. Both ultrasonics (sounds with a high frequency) and infrasounds (sounds with very slow vibrations) remain beyond our hearing. The lower limit of hearing in humans is approximately 15–19 vibrations; the upper one is approximately 20,000, and in some people the sensitivity of the ear can give various individual deviations. Both limits are variable, the upper one in particular depending on age; in older people, sensitivity to high tones gradually decreases. In animals, the upper limit of hearing is much higher than in humans; in a dog it goes up to 38,000 Hz (cycles per second).

When exposed to frequencies above 15,000 Hz, the ear becomes much less sensitive; the ability to distinguish pitch is lost. At 19,000 Hz, only sounds that are a million times more intense than at 14,000 Hz are extremely audible. With an increase in the intensity of high-pitched sounds, there is an unpleasant tickling sensation in the ear (touch of sound), and then a feeling of pain. The area of ​​auditory perception covers more than 10 octaves and is limited from above by the threshold of touch, from below by the threshold of audibility. Within this area lie all the sounds perceived by the ear of various strengths and heights. The smallest force is required to perceive sounds from 1000 to 3000 Hz. The ear is the most sensitive in this area. G.L.F. Helmholtz also pointed out the increased sensitivity of the ear in the region of 2000–3000 Hz; he explained this circumstance by his own tone of the tympanic membrane.

The value of the threshold for distinguishing, or the difference threshold, height (according to T.Per, V.Straub, B.M.Teplov) in the middle octaves for most people is in the range from 6 to 40 cents (a cent is a hundredth of a tempered semitone). The musically gifted children examined by L.V. Blagonadezhina had thresholds of 6-21 cents.

There are actually two height discrimination thresholds: 1) simple discrimination threshold and 2) direction threshold (W. Preyer et al.). Sometimes, with small differences in pitch, the subject notices a difference in pitch, without, however, being able to tell which of the two sounds is higher.

Pitch, as it is usually perceived in noises and speech sounds, includes two different components - the pitch itself and the timbre characteristic.

In the sounds of a complex composition, the change in pitch is associated with a change in some timbre properties. This is explained by the fact that with an increase in the frequency of oscillations, the number of frequency tones available to our hearing aid inevitably decreases. In noise and speech hearing, these two height components are not differentiated. The isolation of pitch in the proper sense of the word from its timbre components is a characteristic feature of musical hearing (B.M. Teplov). It takes place in the process of the historical development of music as a certain type of human activity.

One version of the two-component theory of pitch was developed by F. Brentano, and following him, based on the principle of octave similarity of sounds, G. Reves distinguishes between the quality and lightness of sound. By the quality of sound, he understands such a feature of the pitch, thanks to which we distinguish sounds within an octave. Under lordship - such a feature of its height, which distinguishes the sounds of one octave from the sounds of another. So, all "to" are qualitatively the same, but they are different in lightness. Even K. Stumpf subjected this concept to sharp criticism. Of course, there is an octave similarity (as well as a fifth similarity), but it does not determine any component of pitch.

M. McMayer, K. Stumpf and especially W. Köhler gave a different interpretation of the two-component theory of height, distinguishing in it the actual height and the timbre characteristic of the height (lightness). However, these researchers (as well as E.A. Maltseva) distinguished the two components of height in a purely phenomenal way: they correlated two different and, in part, even heterogeneous properties of sensation with the same objective characteristic of a sound wave. B.M. Teplov pointed out the objective basis of this phenomenon, which consists in the fact that with an increase in height, the number of partial tones accessible to the ear changes. Therefore, the difference in timbre coloring of sounds of different pitches is actually only in complex sounds; in simple tones, it represents the result of transference. 74

Due to this interrelation between the actual pitch and timbre coloring, not only different instruments differ in timbre from each other, but also sounds of different pitch on the same instrument differ from each other not only in pitch, but also in timbre coloring. This affects the relationship of various aspects of sound - its pitch and timbre properties.

3. Timbre.

Timbre is understood as a special character or coloring of sound, depending on the relationship of its partial tones. Timbre reflects the acoustic composition of a complex sound, i.e., the number, order and relative strength of the partial tones (harmonic and non-harmonic) included in its composition.

According to Helmholtz, timbre depends on which upper harmonic tones are mixed in with the fundamental, and on the relative strength of each of them.

In our auditory sensations, the timbre of a complex sound plays a very significant role. Partial tones (overtones), or, in the terminology of N.A. Garbuzov, upper natural overtones, are also of great importance in the perception of harmony.

Timbre, like harmony, reflects the sound, which in its acoustic composition is consonance. Since this consonance is perceived as a single sound without acoustically distinguishing the incoming partial tones in it, the sound composition is reflected in the form of a sound timbre. Since hearing singles out partial tones of a complex sound, a perception of harmony arises. In reality, in the perception of music, there is usually a place for both. The struggle and unity of these two mutually contradictory tendencies is to analyze sound as consonance and perceive consonance as a single sound specific timbre coloration - is an essential aspect of any real perception of music.

Timbre coloring acquires a special richness due to the so-called vibrato(K.Sishor), which gives the sound of a human voice, violin, etc. great emotional expressiveness. Vibrato reflects periodic changes (pulsations) in the pitch and intensity of a sound.

Vibrato plays a significant role in music and singing; it is also represented in speech, especially emotional speech. Since vibrato is present in all peoples and in children, especially musical ones, occurring in them regardless of training and exercise, it is obviously a physiologically conditioned manifestation of emotional tension, a way of expressing feelings.

Vibrato in the human voice as an expression of emotionality has probably existed since there was a sound speech and people use sounds to express their feelings. 75 Vocal vibrato arises as a result of the periodic contraction of paired muscles, observed during nervous discharge in the activity of various muscles, not only vocal ones. Tension and discharge, expressed in the form of pulsation, are homogeneous with the trembling caused by emotional stress.

There is good vibrato and bad vibrato. Bad vibrato is one in which there is an excess of tension or a violation of the periodicity. Good vibrato is a periodic pulsation that includes a certain pitch, intensity and timbre and gives the impression of a pleasant flexibility, fullness, softness and richness of tone.

The fact that vibrato, being due to changes in pitch and intensity sound is perceived as timbre coloration, again reveals the internal interconnection of the various aspects of sound. When analyzing the pitch, it has already been found that the pitch in its traditional sense, that is, that side of the sound sensation, which is determined by the frequency of vibrations, includes not only the pitch, in the proper sense of the word, but also the timbre component of lightness. Now it turns out that, in turn, in timbre coloration - in vibrato - the height is reflected, as well as the intensity of the sound. Various musical instruments differ from each other in timbre characteristics. 76<…>

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