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Foreign trade is. See what "Foreign trade" is in other dictionaries. The subject is the implementation of foreign trade activities

Among the main aspects of activity related to the sphere of the foreign economy, there are international transportation, the supply of raw materials for export, the sale on foreign markets of goods that can successfully compete with similar products from other countries. The better developed this sector of the state's economy, the greater the political and economic impact on other countries.

Any state regulation of foreign economic activity is carried out based on the trends of the world economy. Here are the following aspects:

international division of labor;
internationalization of production activities;
renewal of capital through investment;
the emergence of new industries in the country's economy;
creation of an increasing number of free economic zones (trade liberalization).

The policy aimed at improving foreign economic relations leads to the active development of the country's economy. GDP growth, low inflation, and a decrease in unemployment are all indicators of the growth and strengthening of the state, which improves the life of the population. With the help of well-built and established relationships with partners, as well as the implementation of export-import operations, the state can increase its influence in a particular economic zone. To do this, it is necessary to have an appropriate legislative framework that will contribute to the active development of private business.

Holding a foreign economy

The main body in the Russian Federation exercising control and coordination of foreign economic activity is the Ministry of Trade. Its task is the implementation of all adopted laws developed by the State Duma that relate to foreign economic activity. Through this executive body, the state solves foreign economic problems, realizing tactical and strategic interests. The scope of the external economy includes the following:

establishment of rules for international settlements;
regulation of taxation issues;
introduction of customs tariffs and quotas;
conducting trade operations abroad: purchase / sale, participation in tenders;
representation of the economic interests of the country in foreign exchange and credit organizations.

Some of these operations are entrusted to the Ministry of Finance, whose main tasks are the stabilization of the national economy, the implementation of currency control and the implementation of a unified financial policy. Another government tool that is used in the field of foreign economic activity to control imported / exported goods is the Customs Committee of the Russian Federation. Thus, the external economy is largely characterized by the degree of involvement of a particular state in global processes, the main of which is international trade.

International trade

International trade is the process of buying and selling between buyers, sellers and intermediaries from different countries. Int. Trade includes exports and imports of goods, the ratio between which is called the trade balance. A significant role in accelerating the growth of world trade was also played by the active inclusion in it of new groups of countries that were previously economically backward. Many of them, after gaining independence, embarked on the path of industrialization, which caused an increase in their imports of machinery and equipment from industrialized countries. According to available forecasts, the high rates of world trade will continue in the future: by 2003, the volume of world trade will increase by 50% and exceed 7 trillion. USD

The commodity structure of world trade is changing under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, the deepening of the international division of labor. Currently, manufacturing products are of the greatest importance in world trade: they account for 3/4 of the world trade turnover. The share of such types of products as machinery, equipment, vehicles, and chemical products is growing especially fast. The share of food, raw materials and fuel is approximately 1/4.

Trade in science-intensive goods and high-tech products is developing most dynamically, which stimulates the cross-country exchange of services, especially of a scientific, technical, industrial, communicative, financial and credit nature. Trade in services (especially such as information and computing, consulting, leasing, engineering) stimulates world trade in capital goods (the dynamics of the structure of which is presented below

The geographical distribution of world trade is characterized by the predominance of countries with developed market economies, industrialized countries. So, in the mid-90s. they accounted for about 70% of world exports. Developed countries trade the most with each other. The trade of developing countries is mainly oriented towards the markets of industrialized countries. Their share in world trade is about 25% of world trade. The importance of oil-exporting countries in world trade has declined significantly in recent years; the role of the so-called new industrial countries, especially Asian ones, is becoming more and more noticeable.

In modern conditions, the active participation of the country in world trade is associated with significant advantages: it allows more efficient use of the resources available in the country, to join the world achievements of science and technology, to carry out structural restructuring of its economy in a shorter time, and also to meet the needs of the population more fully and more diversely.

International foreign trade is becoming a real and increasingly tangible factor in the reproduction process, in meeting the needs of the population and any economic activity.

Every sixth good or service gets to the consumer through world trade.

At the same time, this is a real factor in the development of the integration type of world economic relations. All this predetermines shifts in the geographical, country structure of international trade: the center of gravity in it moves to mutual relations between economically developed countries and groups of countries (60-70% of world trade). The quantitative and qualitative characteristics of modern international economic relations show the strengthening of the interconnection and interdependence of national economies , increasing the importance of foreign economic growth, predetermining the benefits of international integration development associated with the formation and development of the structure of international labor markets. In a broad sense, the market is a set of economic, social and political relations that develop in the process of exchanging goods and services. The market is a separate category that develops under the influence of its own laws and affects the entire course of reproduction. Therefore, it is an integral stage of reproduction, developing in close interaction with its other elements - production, distribution and consumption. The market is a system for exchanging labor products with different consumer properties as commodities "

At the present stage, international trade plays an increasing role in the economic development of countries, regions, and the entire world community. As a result, on the one hand, foreign trade has become a powerful factor in economic growth, and on the other hand, there has been a noticeable increase in the dependence of countries on international trade.

The term "foreign trade" implies the exchange of a country with other countries, which includes paid export (export) and import (import) of goods and services.

According to the modern classification, the division of foreign trade activity according to the principle of commodity specialization is carried out as follows: the exchange of finished products, machines, raw materials, services.

International trade serves as a means by which countries participating in the process, by developing their specialization, increase the productivity of available resources and thus increase the volume of goods and services they produce, as well as the level of well-being of their population. In the second half of this century, international exchange is gaining grandiose proportions. Today, 4/5 of the total volume of international economic relations falls on world trade.

Modern international trade is developing at a rapid pace.

Such a steady growth in international trade was the result of the manifestation of the following factors:

Development of the international division of labor and internationalization of production;

scientific and technological revolution, contributing to the renewal of fixed capital, the creation of new sectors of the economy, accelerating the reconstruction of old ones; active activity of transnational corporations in the world market;

Regulation (liberalization) of international trade through the activities of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and now the World Trade Organization (WTO);

Liberalization of international trade, the transition of many countries to a regime that includes the abolition of quantitative restrictions on imports and a significant reduction in customs duties - the formation of free economic zones;

Development of trade and economic integration processes - elimination of regional barriers, formation of common markets, free trade zones;

Obtaining the political independence of the former colonial countries, separating from among them "new industrial countries" with an economy model oriented to the foreign market.

The geographical structure of international exchange provides a system for the distribution of commodity flows between individual countries, groups of countries, formed either on a territorial or organizational basis. -

The uneven dynamics of foreign trade was especially clearly seen in the second half of the current century, which affected the balance of power between countries in the world market. The USA gradually lost its dominant position in the system of international exchange. Germany's exports, on the other hand, approached the US, and in some years even surpassed it. In addition to Germany, exports of other Western European countries also grew at a significant pace. In the 90s. Western Europe is turning into the main center of modern international trade. The total export of this region is almost 4 times higher than the export of the United States. In addition, in the 80s. Japan also made a significant breakthrough in the field of international exchange. In 1983, for the first time, this country was able to come out on top in the world in the export of cars and trucks, household appliances and other goods. One third of Japanese exports go to the USA. The gradual decline in the dominant role of the USA in international trade was associated with a decline in the competitiveness of American production. By the mid 90s. The United States is once again taking the world's leading position in terms of competitiveness, but they are closely followed by Singapore, Hong Kong, and Japan. Against the background of the ongoing changes, the distribution of equity participation of various groups of countries in international exchange has remained almost constant for two decades. Thus, the share of industrialized countries in world exports has fluctuated over the past twenty years within 70-76%, the states of the developing world - in the range of 20-24%, and in the former socialist countries - did not exceed 6-10%.

Mercantilism and the Free Trade Theory

The root cause of the emergence and development of international economic relations is the difference in the endowment of countries with factors of production (economic resources), which, on the one hand, leads to the international division of labor, and, on the other hand, to the movement of these factors between countries.

Due to the different endowment with production factors, economic entities specialize in the production of a limited set of products. At the same time, they achieve high labor productivity in its manufacture, but at the same time they are forced to exchange this product. The division of labor originates within the country, then covers neighboring countries and the whole world. Factors of production (capital, labor, entrepreneurial ability, knowledge.)

The international division of labor is the specialization of individual countries in the production of goods and services that they exchange with each other. Before the industrial revolution (18-19th century), MRI was based on the endowment of countries with natural resources, then specialization is intensified, based on differences in the endowment of countries with capital, labor, entrepreneurial abilities, and knowledge.)

Movement of factors of production

It is advisable for countries not only to use the abundance of some and the scarcity of other factors to establish exports and imports of certain goods and services, but also to export the abundant and import the missing factors of production. Countries that are poor in capital actively attract it from abroad, the labor force that is surplus for some countries seeks to find employment in other countries, countries with developed science export technology to places where there is no such technology of their own. The international movement of factors of production depends not only on the supply and demand of these factors in different countries, but also on their mobility, various barriers to the movement of factors, and many other factors that hinder this movement. Nevertheless, the volume of international movement of factors of production is quite comparable with the volume of international trade.

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COURSE WORK

International trade

Table of contents

Introduction
Conclusion
List of used sources and literature

Introduction

Foreign trade is becoming an increasingly important factor in the development of international relations. Now there is practically no industry in industrialized countries that would not be involved in the sphere of foreign economic activity Dadalko V.A. International Economics: Proc. allowance. - Minsk: "Urajay", "Interpressservis", 2001. S. 439. .

The development of foreign trade plays a special role in modern conditions, when the process of integrating the economy into the world economy is taking place. Russia is also pursuing a policy of consistent development of mutually beneficial trade with all foreign countries that are ready for this. The development of foreign trade is very important both for the whole country and for each enterprise individually Kiriev A.P. At 2 o'clock - Ch.I. International economy: the movement of goods and factors of production. Textbook for universities. - M. 2011. - S. 285. .

That is why this topic is relevant today, when an increasing number of countries are involved in world trade.

International economic relations are one of the most dynamically developing areas of economic life. Economic relations between states have a long history. For centuries, they existed mainly as foreign trade, solving the problems of providing the population with goods that the national economy produced inefficiently or did not produce at all. In the course of evolution, foreign economic relations outgrew foreign trade and turned into a complex set of international economic relations - the world economy. The processes taking place in it affect the interests of all states of the world. And, accordingly, all states must regulate their foreign economic activity in order to achieve their interests in the first place.

The purpose of writing the work is to study the issue "Modern trends in foreign trade."

Tasks:

reveal the concept, essence and forms of modern foreign trade;

consider the main methodological aspects of foreign trade;

highlight the dynamics, geographical and commodity structure of foreign trade;

The object of writing this work is Foreign trade.

The subject is the implementation of foreign trade activities.

The work consists of two chapters, introduction, conclusion and list of used sources and literature.

foreign trade commodity geographical

Chapter 1. Theoretical foundations of foreign trade

1.1 Concept, essence of foreign trade

In the modern foreign trade system, the leading place is occupied by developed countries with a market economy, whose foreign trade policy in the context of the global financial and economic crisis has a decisive impact on the conjuncture of world commodity markets Kiriev A.P. At 2 o'clock - Ch.I. International economy: the movement of goods and factors of production. Textbook for universities. - M. 2011. - S. 286. .

Developed countries account for approximately 2/3 of world exports and imports, while in the commodity structure of foreign trade, more than ¾ of world exports account for manufacturing products, about 40% of the value of world exports is high-tech equipment. This structure of foreign trade was formed due to the innovative nature of the national economies of developed countries, which occupy a leading position in the system of international economic relations.

With the deepening of the international division of labor after the second external war, foreign exchange of goods grew twice as fast as world industrial and agricultural production; as a result, the international export quota reached about 24% in 2009 (for comparison: in the early 1950s, - nine%). External exports of services increased rapidly, amounting to $3.73 trillion in 2010, an increase of 44 times compared to 1970. These indicators emphasize the objective nature of the globalization processes that have affected the economic sphere of the world community to the greatest extent.

However, from 2001 to 2010 there was a clear trend towards a slowdown in the growth of the physical volume of world exports, the average annual growth rate was 5.2%. In recent years, foreign trade has increased mainly due to rising prices and changes in exchange rates, in particular due to the weakening of the dollar against the leading currencies. In 2010, according to WTO data, the growth of foreign trade amounted to only 2.0% (in 2006 - 8.5%, in 2009 - 5.7%). According to the World Bank forecasts, in 2009 the volume of foreign trade will decrease by a record amount for the last 80 years.

Nominally, foreign export of goods in 2010 increased by 15% and amounted to $15.8 trillion, foreign export of services grew by 11% and amounted to $3.7 trillion. The main exporters of goods in 2010 were: Germany (1.47 trillion dollars), China (1.43 trillion dollars), the United States (1.31 trillion dollars). The same countries were also the main importers of goods: USA (2.17 trillion dollars), Germany (1.21 trillion dollars), China (1.13 trillion dollars) Krugman PR, Obstfeld M. International economy. 5th ed. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2003. S. 708. .

And although developed countries retain their leading position in foreign trade, its geographical structure has undergone significant changes in recent decades: the share of Asian states (China, Japan, NIS) has increased. Larionov A.D. State finances / A.D. Larionov. - M.: PROSPECT, 2010. - S. 56.

1.2 Legislative framework for foreign trade activities in Russia

The reform of foreign trade is usually carried out in the general context of systemic economic transformations. However, in Russia, which has been carrying out since the beginning of the 90s. the transition from a centrally planned to a market economy, chronologically, the reform of foreign trade even preceded the radical market reforms of the early 1990s. Yus v. and carried out more decisively and consistently. Market relations began to develop between Russian economic entities and foreign partners earlier than with domestic ones. These relations served as a model for the domestic market, since in a centralized economy only the foreign economic complex had direct contact with the world market.

The main factors hindering the development of Russia's foreign trade, by the beginning of the XXI century. remained:

deindustrialization of the country's economy and reduction of its scientific and technical potential;

preservation of the “heaviness” of the structure of the economy (in which the share of the extractive industry and metal production remains significant, but the share of the production of modern science-intensive products is low);

insufficient investment activity in the domestic market, which hinders the development of an effective production base of the country;

growth in production and transport costs (accompanied by demands from the WTO, the EU to increase energy tariffs);

weak development of the service sector (which also hinders the development of trade in goods);

maintaining and even intensifying discriminatory measures against Russian exporters in foreign markets.

As a result of these factors, Russian exports remain predominantly fuel and raw materials and their weak diversification in terms of goods and country (geography), and, in general, the relatively low international competitiveness of domestic industrial products.

Therefore, the question of what kind of foreign trade (more broadly - foreign economic) policy in its specific directions and forms should be pursued by Russia to solve these problems is of significant importance. At the same time, foreign trade policy should be closely linked with the country's domestic economic policy, on the one hand, and with its general foreign policy, on the other. At present, for example, the illusory nature of the point of view that the Russian economy can successfully develop for a long time based on increasing exports of mainly raw materials and energy resources is quite obvious, without solving the problems of transition to an innovative development model, structural restructuring of the country's economy in the direction of development modern science-intensive industries.

A significant change in foreign trade policy and regulation of foreign economic activity was associated with the Decree of the President of Russia "On the liberalization of foreign economic activity on the territory of the RSFSR On the liberalization of foreign economic activity on the territory of the RSFSR: Decree of the President of the RSFSR of November 15, 1991 No. 213 [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://www.businesspravo.ru/Docum/DocumShow_DocumID_39755.html". In fact, this decree eliminated the state monopoly on all types of foreign economic relations, including foreign trade and foreign exchange transactions. From that moment on, all economic entities, regardless of their form of ownership, formally received the right to engage in foreign economic activity.

However, increasing the degree of openness of the country's economy cannot be ill-conceived and spontaneous. When liberalizing the country's foreign trade, it is necessary to take into account the fact that modern international trade is a system of relations in which the "rules of the game" are determined by the largest TNCs with global strategies and scale of activity. Therefore, it is impossible to interpret the experience of liberalization of trade in other countries, such as the United States, which switched to this kind of policy only after a powerful competitive potential was created in the country, and to refuse targeted regulation and state support of the system of foreign economic relations of Russia. This is all the more relevant since many of the world's leading countries in the context of economic globalization (primarily the United States, as well as the EU countries), as already noted in the textbook, are actually pursuing a policy of so-called "new protectionism." In this situation, it would be a mistake for Russia to simply "open up" its economy by completely liberalizing its system of foreign economic relations.

Formation of foreign economic policy, legislative and regulatory framework since 1992, when Russia became an independent subject of the world economy, is carried out as an integral part of the market transformation of the economy. This process was directly influenced by: the transition to free market pricing; privatization; tax and monetary policy; ruble convertibility rate; formation of the foreign exchange market. Of particular importance was the introduction on July 1, 1992 of a single market exchange rate of the ruble and the transfer of settlements with most foreign partners to prices based on world prices and freely convertible currency.

The main tasks of the Russian Federation in the implementation of foreign economic (in a narrower sense - foreign trade) policy are related to:

ensuring economic security, protecting the economic interests of the state as a whole, subjects of the Federation, Russian participants in foreign economic activity;

protection of the domestic market and domestic producers in the process of implementing foreign trade relations;

conclusion of international agreements in the field of foreign economic relations and participation in the activities of international economic organizations in order to create the most favorable conditions for the economic development of the country.

Since the beginning of the 90s. the legal basis of Russia's foreign trade is being created and attempts are being made to formulate a strategy for the development of foreign trade relations. The foundations of state regulation of foreign trade activities were developed, including customs and tariff regulation, non-tariff restrictions, currency and export control, and coordination of foreign trade activities of the subjects of the Federation. The priority of economic methods of regulation of foreign trade was established with the equality of its participants, regardless of the form of ownership.

By 2013, the following federal laws formed the basis of Russian legislation in foreign trade:

"On the customs tariff" (1993, with additions on 03/04/2014); On the customs tariff: Federal Law of the Russian Federation of May 21, 1993 N 5003-1 / / Rossiyskaya Gazeta. - 1993. - July 1

"On the Fundamentals of State Regulation of Foreign Trade Activities" (No. 164-FZ of December 8, 2003)" On the basics of state regulation of foreign trade activity: Federal Law of the Russian Federationdated December 8, 2003 N 164-FZ / / Rossiyskaya Gazeta. - 2003. - November 18 ;

"On the military-technical cooperation of the Russian Federation with foreign states" (1998 with additions on 04/02/2014) On the military-technical cooperation of the Russian Federation with foreign states: Federal Law of July 19, 1998 No. 114 - FZ [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://base. consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online. cgi? req=doc; base=LAW; n=161242

"On the coordination of international and foreign economic relations of the subjects of the Russian Federation" (1999) On the coordination of international and foreign economic relations of the subjects of the Russian Federation: Federal Law of the Russian Federation dated 04.01.1998 No. 4-FZ [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://constitution. garant.ru/act/federative/179963/#block_7 ;

"On export control" (1999. with additions of 12/21/13) On export control: Federal Law of the Russian Federation of July 18, 1999 No. 183 - FZ: [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://base. garant.ru/12116419/;

Customs Code (as amended in 2003, entered into force on January 1, 2004 with additions dated June 25, 2010) - 2003. - N 22. - Art. 2066 ;

"On the fundamentals of state regulation of foreign trade activities" (2003. with additions on November 30, 2013) On the fundamentals of state regulation of foreign trade activities: Federal Law of the Russian Federation of December 8, 2003 No. 164 - FZ // Rossiyskaya Gazeta. - 2003. - December 18;

"On special protective, anti-dumping and compensatory measures for the import of goods compensatory measures when importing goods: Federal Law of the Russian Federation of December 8, 2003 No. 165 FZ / / Rossiyskaya Gazeta. - 2003. - December 8.

Previously, Federal Law No. 157 FZ "On State Regulation of Foreign Trade Activities" adopted on October 15, 1995, played a significant role in the legislative and regulatory framework of foreign trade activity in Russia. However, after the adoption of the Federal Law of December 8, 2003 No. 164 FZ "On the Fundamentals of State Regulation of Foreign Trade Activities", the provisions of this law lost their force.

Already on one list adopted since the beginning of the 90s. laws can be judged on the development, modification and specification of state foreign trade policy after the abolition of the monopoly of foreign trade.

1.3 Foreign trade in Russia

In Russia, its foreign economic complex is the most important sector of the national economy and its importance will constantly increase. However, it must be emphasized that from 1985 to 1999. Russia's share in foreign trade (total world exports of goods) decreased from 3.6% to 1.3% (20th place), but by 2009 it increased to 2.7%. In 2010, Russia's share in world exports slightly increased due to higher oil prices - up to 2.9% (9th place in the world), in terms of imports - 1.8% (in 2009 - 1.6%, 16 rank), and she retained the 16th place in the world. But in order for Russia to significantly influence the development of the foreign economy, that is, to correspond to the status of an external power, its share in world exports, according to domestic experts, should be at least 10%.

Russia's foreign trade turnover has increased significantly over the past 18 years, but its growth was mainly due to an increase in the cost of oil and other energy carriers and an increase in their share in the total export structure. The export quota is constantly increasing: in the Soviet period it did not exceed 8%, in the mid-1990s it reached 8%. was 20%, in 2010 it was 26.6% (approximately one and a half to two times higher than in developed countries), which makes the country's economy very vulnerable to fluctuations in world market conditions Larionov A.D. State finances / A.D. Larionov. - M.: PROSPECT, 2010. - S. 57. .

The main problem of Russian foreign economic activity at present is the low commodity diversification of exports. The share of fuel, raw materials and semi-finished products in recent years has been more than 90% of the export of the Russian Federation to non-CIS countries, and it does not tend to decrease (Table 1).

Table 1.1. Commodity structure of exports of the Russian Federation in 2009-2010 (% of total exports to these countries)

Name of commodity branch	Non-CIS countries in 2009	Non-CIS countries in 2010	CIS countries	CIS countries
Fuel and energy products
Metals and products from them
Products of the chemical industry,
Wood and pulp and paper products
Food

Other goods

As for the geographical structure of Russia's foreign trade, in recent years the European focus has significantly increased: in 2009, the EU countries accounted for 51.3% of the foreign trade turnover of the Russian Federation, in 2010 - 52.0%, while the share of the EU in world GDP is lower ј and tends to decrease. The APEC countries account for 20.4% of Russia's foreign trade turnover, while the share of these countries in world GDP is approximately 25% (Table 1.2). That is why the Concept of Long-term Socio-Economic Development of Russia until 2020 states that it is necessary to ensure "the expansion and diversification of hydrocarbon exports to the European and Asian markets" Larionov A.D. State finances / A.D. Larionov. - M.: PROSPECT, 2010. - S. 58. . This provision of the Concept should also be applied to other export goods of the Russian Federation.

Table 1.2. Geographic structure of foreign trade of the Russian Federation in 2009-2010. (billion dollars)





Germany
Netherlands



Belarus

In exchange for the export of raw materials and energy carriers, the country imports mainly finished products (Table 1.3) Larionov A.D. State finances / A.D. Larionov. - M.: PROSPECT, 2010. - S. 61. .

Commodity imports of Russia in 2010 compared with 1999 increased by 6.5 times. Currently, it is the main constraint on the development of domestic production, since it is primarily focused on saturating the consumer market (about 40% of Russia's total imports), which is several times higher than in developed countries. Imports in Russia do not fulfill the main task of stimulating an increase in the competitiveness of Russian manufacturers, therefore the level of innovation activity in Russia is significantly (5-7 times) lower than in developed countries.

Table 1.3. Commodity structure of imports of the Russian Federation in 2009-2010 (% of total imports to these countries)

Name of commodity branch	Non-CIS countries	Non-CIS countries	CIS countries	CIS countries
Metals and products from them
Products of the chemical industry
Food
Machinery, equipment and vehicles
Other goods

The imperfect structure of Russia's foreign trade led to the fact that the country's trade surplus for 7 months of 2009, according to the Federal Customs Service (FCS), amounted to $65.1 billion, which is about 2 times less than in the same period last year .

The volume of Russian exports has declined significantly. The main reason for the reduction in its value was the decrease in the level of average prices for the main raw materials of Russian exports, while the physical volumes of export deliveries remained at the level of the previous year. The index of average export prices in July 2009 amounted to 67.9%, while the index of physical volume amounted to 99.2% Finance: Textbook for universities / Ed. prof. L.A. Drozbina. - M.: UNITI, 2009. - S. 45. .

The volume of imports to Russia also decreased. The situation with it is directly opposite to exports: the decline is mainly due to a drop in the physical volumes of deliveries. In July 2009, compared with July 2010, the index of the physical volume of imports decreased to 56.6%, while the index of average prices of imported goods decreased slightly and amounted to 94.1%. Russia, thus, is currently deprived of the necessary financial resources for the modernization of the national economy. Moreover, the Russian manufacturing industry is limited in the use of its own raw material base, since more than half of the hydrocarbons and 2/3 of the mineral raw materials produced are exported. Consequently, the transition of the national economy to an innovative development model is becoming increasingly difficult.

The way out of this situation could be a significant reduction in the energy intensity of the national economy through the introduction of energy-saving technologies and the development of alternative energy, which would allow, on the one hand, to maintain its place in the global energy market, given the stable and long-term demand for energy; on the other hand, gradually transfer the industry to a higher technological level.

The main reasons for the continued mono-export specialization of the country are the hasty liberalization of foreign economic activity in the absence of a state strategic industrial and structural policy, Russia's withdrawal from the markets of traditional partners from developing countries, the rupture of integration and cooperation ties with the CIS republics and the countries participating in the former CMEA Larionov A.D. State finances / A.D. Larionov. - M.: PROSPECT, 2010. - S. 39. .

As a result of these circumstances, there is a need to introduce a partial state monopoly on the export of products that are of strategic importance for the development of the country, primarily for its innovation sector. Thus, over the past 15 years (1993-2010) the positive trade balance has exceeded a trillion dollars, but these funds are only partially received by the state (and only a small part of them is directed directly to the goals of innovative development).

The constant decline in trade with the CIS countries puts on the agenda accelerated, as stated in the Concept of long-term socio-economic development of Russia until 2020, "the formation of a customs union with the EurAsEC countries, including the harmonization of legislation and law enforcement practice."

If in trade in goods Russia has a constant positive balance, then in trade in services this balance is negative. This is a serious problem for our foreign trade, given that in the external trade system the dynamics of trade in services is higher than trade in goods (Table 1.4).

Table 1.4. Dynamics of foreign trade in services in the Russian Federation, 2002-2010 (billion dollars)

In view of the imperfect structure of foreign trade in the context of the global crisis, one should expect further increased pressure on Russia to open its markets. According to experts from the World Economic Forum (WEF), "the Russian economy remains one of the most closed in the world and continues to erect barriers to its broad participation in foreign trade." This is stated in the WEF report on the involvement of countries in international trade in 2009 (In the ranking of economic openness, Russia ranked 109 out of 121 possible. According to WEF experts, although it ranks eighth in the world in terms of economic both for import and export Larionov A.D. State Finance / A.D. Larionov. - M.: PROSPECT, 2010. - P. 39. .

Taking into account these problems of Russia's economic development, the Concept of the country's long-term socio-economic development until 2020 sets the task of transitioning the domestic economy from an export-raw material to an innovative type of development. In accordance with it, the share of industrial enterprises implementing technological innovations should increase to 40-50 percent (2009 - 8.5 percent), and the share of innovative products in the volume of output - up to 25-35 percent (2009 - 5.5 percent). ). By 2020, the country may take a significant place (5-10 percent) in the markets of high-tech goods and intellectual services in 5-7 or more sectors.

In order for Russia to retain its worthy place in the foreign economy, it needs to sharply increase the efficiency of its foreign economic activity. To this end, it is necessary to organize foreign trade and price monitoring in order to take prompt measures to protect the interests of domestic producers due to unfavorable changes in the world market conditions in the context of the global economic crisis. It is also necessary to strengthen support for domestic exporters, for which purpose to create a network of export support centers, primarily in those regions where the production of high-tech and science-intensive products is concentrated Finance: Textbook. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional / S.A. Belozerov, S.G. Gorbushin and others: Ed.V. V. Kovaleva. - M.: TK Velby, 2010. - S. 49. .

In the context of a slowdown in the growth of the external economy, it is necessary to monitor the anti-crisis measures of Russia's counterparties, and on this basis, to take appropriate measures to protect domestic producers, given the fact that, as indicated in the National Security Strategy of the Russian Federation until 2020, "the consequences of global financial and economic crises can become comparable in terms of cumulative damage to the large-scale use of military force.

In this regard, the government of the Russian Federation should pursue a more consistent economic policy aimed at creating import-substituting industries, which will allow the national manufacturing industry to overcome the crisis and move to a new level of technological development. In conditions when, according to existing forecasts, foreign exports of nanotechnological products, biotechnological and pharmaceutical products, high-tech machinery and equipment will sharply increase in the coming years, Russia has a chance to make a technological breakthrough by investing funds from energy exports in the development of these industries.

Chapter 2. Commodity and geographical structure of modern foreign trade

2.1 Main methodological aspects of foreign trade

Foreign trade statistics characterizes the volume of exports and imports of goods, their dynamics, geographical distribution, commodity composition, participation in foreign trade, as well as its importance in the country's economy.

Goods subject to customs processing, in external statistical practice, are classified as visible goods. The statistics of foreign trade in "visible goods" is an integral part of the statistics of foreign economic relations, which, in addition to accounting for exports and imports of the above goods, also records other operations, for example, foreign trade in services Ackoff, R. Planning in large economic systems. - M.: Zertsalo, 2009. - S. 78. .

Export refers to the export of goods from the country of domestic production, as well as re-export goods.

Goods of domestic production also include goods of foreign origin imported into the country and subjected to significant processing that changes the main qualitative or technical characteristics of the goods. Processing does not include operations necessary to ensure the safety of goods, operations for pre-sale preparation of goods and for their preparation for transportation, simple assembly operations, mixing of goods (components) produced by other enterprises, provided that the characteristics of the resulting product do not differ significantly from those goods (components) included in it.

Import refers to the entry of goods into a country. Imports include imported goods intended for domestic consumption for re-export and goods purchased for domestic organizations abroad for local consumption.

Export (import) includes goods, the export (import) of which reduces or increases the material resources of the country, including:

non-monetary gold and silver, which does not act as a means of payment;

· goods supplied on account of contributions to the UN Technical Assistance Fund, as gifts, grants, etc.;

military goods;

· electricity, water, supply of goods through pipelines (oil, gas);

· Bunker fuel, fuel, food and materials sold for foreign ships, aircraft and trucks and respectively purchased for domestic ships, aircraft and trucks abroad Ackoff, R. Planning in large economic systems. - M.: Zertsalo, 2009. - S. 81. ;

· re-export goods with import into the country;

· catch of fish and other marine products sold (purchased in neutral and foreign waters (under the terms of a concession agreement concluded by the state for the operation of industrial enterprises, land, etc.);

· securities, banknotes and coins not in circulation (recorded at their commercial value);

Goods exported (imported) for the purpose of their processing;

goods purchased under contracts of organizations of the given country, carrying out export-import operations, for consumption by organizations abroad and, accordingly, goods sold under contracts for consumption by foreign organizations in the country;

Not included in export (import):

monetary gold;

securities, banknotes and coins in circulation;

· transit of foreign goods through the territory of the country;

· re-export goods without importation into the country;

goods exported and, accordingly, imported temporarily, temporary export and import of animals for participation in races, races, etc.;

· catch of fish and other marine products, which was produced in neutral and foreign waters (under concessions);

personal luggage of passengers, items (official and personal) intended for embassies, diplomatic missions, consulates, trade missions and other organizations abroad;

· vehicles and equipment sent for repair and returned after repair Ackoff, R. Planning in large economic systems. - M.: Zertsalo, 2009. - S. 83. ;

goods manufactured for export, but sold to domestic organizations using their own foreign exchange funds;

services of a tangible and intangible nature;

goods sold (purchased) within the country by joint ventures and organizations;

Accounting for exports and imports of goods for water, rail, road, air transportation is carried out:

· for export - according to the date of permission to release across the border, affixed on the stamp of the cargo customs declaration by the territorial customs;

· for import - by the date of customs clearance on the cargo customs declaration for the release of cargo for domestic consumption;

· the date of export or import of goods supplied by pipeline transport, as well as electricity, is the date of the acceptance certificate drawn up at the border or other control and distribution points of the pipeline or electric wire;

· Goods purchased abroad and handed over to their organizations for local consumption are counted as imports at the moment of transfer of ownership, drawn up by the acceptance certificate;

goods sent and received on consignment, as well as to rented warehouses, fairs, exhibitions and showrooms, are counted as exports or imports after their sale or purchase;

· when sending goods by mail - by the date of the postal receipt.

The valuation of goods is carried out at the prices of contracts with subsequent clarification at actual prices. The cost of goods sold through commission agents (brokers) is reduced by the amount of the brokerage commission.

Accounting for exports and imports of goods is carried out:

· exported - at FOB prices or Franco-border of the exporting country;

· Imported - at CIF prices or Franco-border of the importing country.

· FOB (free on board) - a condition for the sale of goods, according to which the price of the goods includes its cost and the cost of delivering and loading the goods on board the ship Ackoff, R. Planning in large economic systems. - M.: Zertsalo, 2009. - S. 83. .

CIF (cost, insurance, freight) - a condition for the sale of goods, according to which the price of the goods includes its cost and the cost of insurance and transportation of the goods (to the border of the importer's country).

Delivery of goods can be carried out without payment. In such cases, the assessment of export (import) of goods is carried out at the prices of goods in the markets of the respective countries or at the prices of goods of the same name, for which export-import operations are carried out on a commercial basis. In order to improve statistical accounting of the results of foreign economic activity and increase its reliability, ensure comparability of relevant statistical indicators at the international level and ensure information obligations to international organizations, it is recommended to record export-import transactions and draw up statistical reporting on foreign economic relations from January 1, 1992 in US dollars.

For the purposes of external comparability, it is recommended to use weight units of measurement as widely as possible, along with a specific unit of measurement. This makes it possible, with significant differences in the units of measurement used in different countries for the same goods, to obtain uniform quantitative information Bochkarev A. Finance / A. Bochkarev // Expert. - 2010. - No. 10. - S. 32. .

Goods, for the measurement of which weight measures are taken, are accounted for by net weight.

As a classifier of goods circulating in foreign trade, the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity (TN VED) is used.

In accordance with the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation, the collection, development and publication of data on foreign trade is carried out, as in many countries of the world, by the State Customs Committee of Russia on the basis of the information contained in the cargo customs declarations (CCD).

Another important aspect in the development of data on foreign trade is the non-inclusion in the results of customs statistics of information on the volume of exports (imports) of goods that do not cross the customs border (bunker fuel) and goods purchased by Russian (foreign) vehicles in foreign (Russian) ports.

2.2 Dynamics, commodity and geographical structure of foreign trade

The total volume of foreign trade (commodity turnover) is divided into cost and physical volume. The value of the volume, which is calculated for a certain period of time at current prices of the relevant years using current exchange rates. There are nominal and real value of foreign trade. Nominal - usually expressed in US dollars at current prices and therefore highly dependent on the dynamics of the dollar exchange rate against other currencies. Real - represents the nominal volume converted into constant prices using a deflator.

The physical volume is calculated at constant prices and allows making the necessary comparisons and determining the real dynamics of foreign trade.

These figures are calculated by all countries in national currencies and converted to US dollars for international comparison purposes.

The commodity structure is the ratio of commodity groups in world exports (there are more than 20 million types of manufactured products for industrial and consumer purposes, a huge number of intermediate products and more than 600 types of services) Bochkarev A. Finance / A. Bochkarev // Expert. - 2010. - No. 10. - S. 32. .

Characterized by:

1. A decrease in the share of raw materials and mineral fuels (40% in the late 90s, and 12% in the 2000s). Export of raw materials - to industrial countries - 60.5%, developing countries - 33.4%, countries in transition economy - 6.1% Developed countries are both importers and exporters of raw materials in the world).

2. Diversification of the commodity flow - a wide range of manufactured goods (Germany - 180 positions, USA, Great Britain, Germany - 175 positions, Japan - less than 160 positions).

3. High share of finished products - (80% of trade in the world, 40% - engineering products of which: developed countries: exports - 77%, imports - 70%; developing countries: exports - 22%, imports - 28% ).

4. Reducing the share of food (agrarian sector): major food exporters - developed countries, more than 60%. - an increase in the share of trade in textiles and clothing (developing countries (export): textiles - 48.3%, clothing - 60%; developed countries (export): textiles - 49.3%, clothing - 35.4%).

5. The "Chinese factor" in foreign trade is rising, the trade and economic potential of India is growing rapidly, and the countries of Latin America (Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Chile) are becoming more significant.

The geographical structure is the distribution of trade flows between individual countries and their groups, distinguished either on a territorial or organizational basis.

The territorial geographic structure is data on the foreign trade of countries belonging to one part of the world, or to one group.

Since the second half of the 20th century, the uneven dynamics of foreign trade has noticeably manifested itself, this has affected the balance of power between countries in the world market (industrialized countries - 70-75% of foreign trade, developing countries - 20%, former socialist countries - 10%).

Geographic configuration of foreign trade (less than 70% of exports):

Industrialized countries - less than 70% of exports, 75% of imports (USA, EU, Japan less than 60% of exports and imports; "Big Seven" 50% of world trade). In the mid 90s. - leader West Germany, USA, Japan. In the 2000s USA ranks 1st.

Developing countries (growth trends in foreign trade) 1990s - 22%, 2000s - 32%.

The high proportion of new industrial countries is Southeast Asia (South Korea, Indonesia, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia). The share of China is growing (today it is among the 10 largest trading powers in the world).

Top ten world exporters: China, USA, Germany, Japan, France, UK, Italy, Canada, Netherlands, India.

Three-quarters of industrialized countries' exports go to other developed countries. At the same time, 4/5 of exports are non-food products Bochkarev A. Finance / A. Bochkarev // Expert. - 2010. - No. 10. - S. 32. .

Since the exports of industrialized countries are dominated by sophisticated machinery, most developing countries are of comparatively less interest to them as markets for such products. Sophisticated equipment is often not needed by developing countries, because it does not fit into the established production cycle. Sometimes they just can't afford it.

Exporters from Asia are strengthening their positions in the world market mainly due to the countries of Western Europe. This happens both in the markets traditional for developing countries (textiles, consumer goods), and in the markets for complex products, including capital goods. From 2001 to 2007, the share of the EU in world trade decreased from 44% to 36% in various positions, while the share of the countries of the Asia-Pacific region rose from 38% to 42%. China's role in foreign trade has grown markedly.

The organizational geographic structure is data on foreign trade between countries belonging to separate integration and other trade and political groups, or allocated to a specific group according to certain criteria (for example, OPEC oil exporting countries).

The subjects of foreign trade are: countries of the world; TNK; regional integration groups.

The objects of foreign trade can be products of human labor - goods and services.

Depending on the object of foreign trade, two forms of it are distinguished:

1. Foreign trade in goods (MTT) is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor and expressing their mutual economic dependence;

2. Foreign trade in services (MTS) is a specific form of global economic relations for the exchange of services between sellers and buyers of different countries.

Foreign trade in goods is the first and most developed form of international economic relations. The following factors influenced its stable and sustainable growth:

- development of MRT and internationalization of production;

- Scientific and technological revolution, contributing to the renewal of fixed capital, the creation of new sectors of the economy, accelerating the reconstruction of old ones;

- vigorous activity of TNCs in the world market;

- liberalization of foreign trade through the activities carried out by the GATT / WTO;

- development of trade and economic integration processes: elimination of regional barriers, formation of common markets, free trade zones.

Predominant growth of foreign trade in comparison with the general rates of economic development of countries (for example, in 2000-2005, US GDP grew by 31.4%, while exports - by 48.8%, imports - by 50.5%; In Japan, GDP growth was 13.2%, exports - 53.1%, imports - 37.1%.

Factors acting in the sphere of production have a decisive influence on the development of foreign trade: structural shifts and cyclical fluctuations in the world economy Anankina E.A. Finance / E.A. Anakin. - M.: Zertsalo, 2010. - S. 49. .

The growth of the export quota, indicating the growing involvement of countries in the world economy, as The export quota shows what share of all manufactured products is sold on the world market. In some countries, this figure exceeds the general foreign one (17%) - for example, Germany, France, Great Britain. In the context of increased internationalization of economic life, there is a tendency towards an increase in the import quota, which indicates the growing influence on national economies of the processes taking place on the world market.

Significant changes in the geographical structure of foreign trade under the influence of economic and political changes in the world in the 90s. The leading role still belongs to the industrialized countries.

In the group of developing countries, there is also a pronounced unevenness in the degree of participation in foreign trade in goods. The share of foreign trade in goods of the countries of the Middle East is decreasing, which is explained by the instability of oil prices and the aggravation of contradictions between the OPEC states. Unstable foreign trade position of many African countries included in the group of the least developed. South Africa provides 1/3 of African exports. The position of the countries of Latin America is also not stable enough, because their raw material export orientation remains (2/3 of their export earnings come from raw materials). The increase in the share of Asian countries in foreign trade was ensured by high economic growth rates (on average 6% per year) and the reorientation of its exports to finished products (2/3 of the value of exports). Thus, the increase in the total share of developing countries in foreign trade in goods is ensured by the NIS of Southeast Asia and China.

Expansion of trade within developing countries, which is currently growing faster than between industrialized countries. There is an increase in trade between developing countries and industrialized countries, as well as between industrialized countries and countries with economies in transition. The countries of Southeast Asia have become the largest trading partners of the USA, Japan, and Western Europe. The EU countries are increasing their trade turnover with the countries of Eastern Europe. The ratio of country groups in world exports:

70 - 72% - industrial countries;

24 - 26% - developing countries (at the end of the 80s - 22%);

3.7% - countries with economies in transition, including the CIS countries - 2.3% (in the late 80s, the share of socialist countries was 6-8%).

According to IMF statistics, the group of largest exporters (over $100 billion a year) includes the USA, Germany, Japan, France, Great Britain, Italy, Canada, the Netherlands, Hong Kong, Belgium/Luxembourg, China, Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Spain.

The main flow of foreign trade falls on industrialized countries - 55%; 27% of foreign trade is between industrialized countries and developing countries; 7% - between developing countries; 5% - between EITs and all other countries.

According to UN experts, currently in world exports:

- 75% is manufactured products, and half of this indicator falls on technically complex goods and machines;

- 8% are food products (including drinks and tobacco);

- 12% is mineral raw materials and fuel.

In recent years, there has been a tendency in the world market for an increase in the share in world exports of textile products and finished products of the manufacturing industry up to 77%. Anankina E.A. Finance / E.A. Anakin. - M.: Zertsalo, 2010. - S. 51. .

Among the leading exporters, Russia is in 13th place and its share in world exports is 2.4%. In the list of leading importers, Russia ranks 17th, accounting for 1.5% of world imports. World Trade Organization: www.wto.org.

Table 1. Foreign trade of the Russian Federation in 2006-2011, billion dollars (according to the methodology of the balance of payments) Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation: www.gks.ru

From 2006 to 2008 there was a continuous growth of all indicators. A significant increase in the export of goods was facilitated by a favorable price environment in foreign markets, namely oil prices. A significant increase in imports of goods was facilitated by an increase in domestic demand for foreign-made goods, associated with economic growth and an increase in household incomes. The growth of imports was mainly due to an increase in the physical volumes of imported products. The volumes of exports and imports in 2011 were the largest in the last 6 years and amounted to 522 and 323.8 billion dollars, respectively. The value of imports increased due to the growth in purchases of mechanical equipment, means of land transport, optical instruments and apparatus, and electrical equipment. Increased the physical volume of imports of cars. The sharp increase in the value of exports was caused by an increase in average export prices, mainly for oil, oil products and natural gas. In 2011, 244.6 million tons of oil were exported, and the average export price was $101.74 per barrel, and the value of oil exports was $181.8 billion, which is significantly higher than in other years (Tab. 2).

Table 2 Oil exports from the Russian Federation Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation: www.gks.ru

Quantity, million tons	Cost, billion USD	Average export price, dollars per barrel

Russia's trade balance has consistently remained positive and in 2008 exceeded $170 billion for the first time in history. In 2009, all indicators declined due to the global economic crisis. Foreign trade turnover decreased significantly from $763.3 billion in 2008 to $495.1 billion in 2009, respectively, and the balance - up to $111.5 billion. Foreign trade turnover grew both due to exports and imports in 2011 reached its maximum level and amounted to 845.8 billion dollars. The increase in turnover in 2011 was due to an increase in the value of exports, which was caused both by an increase in the average prices of goods exported by Russia, and an increase in the physical volumes of their deliveries.

An important indicator in assessing a country's foreign trade is its geographical structure, which is a system for distributing commodity flows between individual countries, groups of countries, formed on a territorial or organizational basis. When considering the geographical structure of Russia's foreign trade, it is necessary to single out two main areas: the CIS countries (near abroad) and far abroad.

In general, the dynamics and geographical structure of Russia's foreign trade for the period 2006-2011 looks like this (Table 3).

Table 3. Geographic structure of Russia's foreign trade, billion dollars (according to the methodology of the balance of payments) Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation: www.gks.ru

CIS countries

Trade turnover


Non-CIS countries

Trade turnover

Foreign trade of Russia is absolutely dominated by non-CIS countries, which account for 85% of the trade turnover of the Russian Federation. The CIS countries occupy a stable 2nd place among Russia's foreign trade partners. Their share in the turnover of trade in 2011. was 15%.

General information

The development of foreign trade began long before the formation of the world economic system. The exchange of goods between countries formed the conditions for the emergence of machine production, which in many cases could expand only on the basis of massive foreign demand and imported raw materials. Foreign trade is both a prerequisite and a consequence of the world division of labor. It is the most important factor in the creation and functioning of the international economy. Its historical path began from single transactions. Over time, trade relations developed, growing into large-scale long-term international cooperation.

Theoretical aspect

The problems of foreign trade were studied by politicians and scientists at a time when other areas of science were not sufficiently developed. From the 16th to the 18th century, the doctrine of mercantilism existed. At that time, the world division of labor was limited mainly to bilateral and tripartite agreements. According to the mercantilists, the state should sell as much as possible of any product on the foreign market, and purchase as few goods as possible. However, if all countries follow this idea, then foreign trade will be absurd.

Advantage principle

Smith was the author of this theory. His idea was based on the "profitability" of domestic production and the sale of products to other countries in which production is associated with high costs. The principle of comparative advantage is based on differences in labor time spent on the production of one product.

Comparative cost theory

In general, foreign trade acts as a means by which states can develop specialization, increase the productivity of their own resources, thus increasing the total production volume. Due to this, sovereign countries, as well as their individual regions and enterprises, can benefit from products that they can produce with relatively high efficiency, as well as from their subsequent exchange for goods that they cannot produce themselves. The most important effect of rising costs is the formation of the boundaries of specialization. In this regard, it is not uncommon for goods produced by a country's own enterprises to directly compete with similar or similar imported products.

Free trade

Through trade based on the principle of comparative costs, the world economic system can achieve a more rational allocation of resources and a high degree of material well-being. The level of technological knowledge of states and the structure of their reserves are different. It follows from this that each country should produce those products, the cost of production of which in it is lower relative to others. If nations do this, the world can take full advantage of geographic specialization. The side benefit of free trade is to stimulate competition and limit monopoly. The high productivity of foreign enterprises is forcing many local companies to switch to lower cost technologies. In addition, it forces firms to innovate and keep up with technical progress, improving the quality of goods, using scientific achievements and developments, and investing in research.

The current state of the institute

Currently, the active participation of countries in international trade is due to a number of factors. First of all, cooperation at the global level makes it possible to use the resources available in states more efficiently. Foreign trade contributes to familiarization with the world achievements of technology and science. Participation in the world trade turnover makes it possible to reduce the time for the structural reorganization of the country's economic system, to meet the needs of the population in a more diverse and complete manner. These opportunities and prospects, in turn, contribute to increased interest in the mechanism through which the regulation of foreign trade is ensured. This problem is of particular importance for countries that have embarked on the path of forming a market system, aimed at participating in global cooperation.

Dynamics of foreign trade

World trade turnover acts as a central link in a complex system of intergovernmental relations. It is a complex of foreign trade states. Its volume is thus determined by summing the export figures of each country. Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, various structural shifts take place in world trade, industrial production cooperates and specializes. All this strengthens the interconnection of national economies. The volume of world trade is growing faster than production. This is proved by the statistics of foreign trade. Thus, for every 10% increase in world production, 16% of trade is accounted for. Foreign trade thus forms the prerequisites for the development of industry. At the same time, in case of disruptions in trade, production rates slow down.

Foreign Trade Restrictions

Experts put forward many arguments in favor of free trade. However, despite their persuasiveness, in practice many barriers are formed. The main restrictions include:

duties (including protectionist ones);
import quotas;
non-tariff barriers.

These obstacles act as means of implementing protectionism in the sphere of world trade. Let's consider them separately.

duties

These excise taxes on imported products are imposed for profit by the government or to protect domestic producers. Fiscal duties, as a rule, are used for products that are not produced at the enterprises of the country. For example, for the USA such goods are bananas, coffee and so on. These fees are usually low. Their main goal is to provide tax revenues to the federal budget.

Protectionist duties

They are introduced to protect the local producer from foreign competitors. The size of protectionist duties does not allow completely stopping the import of foreign products. However, such taxes place foreign producers at a significant disadvantage in their domestic trading activities.

Import quotas

With their help, the maximum volume of a particular product that can be imported into the domestic market for a certain period of time is established. Often, import quotas are a more effective tool for deterring foreign trade than tariffs. Despite the high tax, certain products can be imported in relatively large quantities. But at the same time, a low import quota completely prohibits the supply of goods in excess of the established volume.

Non-tariff barriers

They should be understood as a licensing system, the creation of unjustified standards and norms for product quality, its safety, or simply bureaucratic restrictions in customs procedures. For example, Japan and a number of European countries require importers to obtain permits. By limiting the issuance of a license, imports can be effectively deterred.

Safeguard Analysis

An assessment of supply and demand shows that protectionism leads to higher prices and lower volumes of products subject to duties. In this regard, the sale of foreign goods is significantly reduced, and local producers make a profit due to rising prices and an increase in sales volume. Tariffs thus lead to a less efficient allocation of global and domestic resources. In a number of cases, the most convincing arguments in favor of a policy of protectionism are references to the need to expand the defense industries and the underdevelopment of the industrial sector. Most of the rest of the arguments are emotional appeals, half-truths or false statements that emphasize the usually immediate effect of the restrictions, ignoring the long-term consequences.

The State of the Russian Institute at the Beginning of the Century

Russia's foreign trade at the beginning of the century was very active. Thus, in 2003, it remained an intensively emerging sector, stimulating economic and social activity within the country. Due to a combination of a number of favorable factors, Russia's foreign trade at the beginning of the century was characterized by high growth rates. At the same time, after a two-year break, export figures in dollar terms began to exceed import ones. Thus, in 2003 the turnover of the Russian Federation was 210.8 billion dollars. This is a quarter more than in the previous year, 2002. In December 2003, the foreign trade turnover reached a 15-year high of $22.3 billion. Export growth was driven by exceptionally favorable oil and other energy prices. In the next year, 2004, the market situation remained the same. In January, exports amounted to 11 billion dollars.

Analysis of the state of trade in 2015

At the beginning of the year, there was a sharp drop in the exchange rate of the ruble and oil prices, the introduction of new sanctions by foreign countries. Foreign trade of the Russian Federation also suffered from this. The decline in turnover was felt by ordinary consumers. As of January 2015, the volume amounted to 38 billion rubles, having decreased by 34%. Exports decreased by 29%, and imports - by 41%. Such declines are primarily due to the low exchange rate of the national currency. Statistical authorities calculated that the cost of exported products decreased by 6.3%, and imported - by 7.2%. The price of a barrel of oil fell to $47. This figure is comparable to the 2008 crisis indicators. In addition, according to the Ministry of Economic Development, there was a significant decline in investment in construction, fixed capital, and the pace of manufacturing production decreased. This, in turn, had an impact on the volume of output of goods, imports and exports.

Thus, foreign trade indicators for January 2015 turned out to be the lowest for the last 4 years. The volume of purchases of equipment and machinery, goods of the chemical and metallurgical industries has significantly decreased. A decrease in indicators was also noted during 2014. It intensified by autumn in connection with the introduction of sanctions against the Russian Federation. Significantly decreased investment, the provision of loans to domestic companies by foreign financial institutions. In addition, some sanctions affected the import and export of products from a number of countries. Russia's introduction of a food embargo also affected the decline in imports.

yourself international trade . Character, level of development and significance International trade determined by the respective production method. At the core International trade lies international division of labor .

International trade originated in ancient times and contributed to the growth of commodity production and commodity-money relations in pre-capitalist formations. In the slave-owning and feudal epochs, when production was mainly in kind, International trade covered an insignificant part of the products of production and served mainly the personal consumption of the ruling classes. During the decay of feudalism, the development International trade and the emergence of the world market (16-18 centuries) contributed to the establishment of the capitalist mode of production. The widest development International trade received in the era of capitalism, especially at the stage of large-scale machine industry. “Capitalist production,” wrote K. Marx, “does not exist at all without foreign trade” (K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 24, p. 534). The world market "...is the basis and vital atmosphere of the capitalist mode of production" (Marx K., ibid., vol. 25, part 1, p. 122). The world market, being a historical prerequisite for the development of the capitalist mode of production, was at the same time its result. Foreign markets constitute an inseparable part of the capitalist market in general. Therefore, "... it is impossible to imagine a capitalist nation without foreign trade, and indeed there is no such nation" (V. I. Lenin, Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 3, p. 56).

V. I. Lenin, having smashed the false idea of the petty-bourgeois economists (J. Sh. Sismondi and Russian populists), as if without external markets and a non-capitalist environment it is theoretically impossible to realize surplus value with an expanded reproduction of capital, showed the real reasons for the need for external markets under capitalism. First, the need for foreign markets for capitalist countries is determined by the fact that "... capitalism appears only as the result of a widely developed circulation of commodities that goes beyond the boundaries of the state" (ibid.). Large-scale capitalist industry arises on the basis of the already existing, fairly developed international circulation of commodities and extensive commercial ties between states. Many large enterprises and entire branches of industry at their inception (and even more so during their further development) are oriented to one degree or another not only to the internal , but also to the foreign market. Secondly, the need for foreign markets is connected with the uneven development of individual branches of social production inherent in capitalism (due to the anarchy of production). "Different branches of industry, which serve as 'markets for each other', do not develop evenly, but overtake each other, and the more developed industry is looking for an external market" (ibid.). Wherein International trade does not and cannot eliminate the contradictions arising from the disproportionality of the capitalist economy within individual countries. On the contrary, on the scale of world capitalist production, the anarchy and disproportionality of the various industries are even stronger. That's why International trade it only transfers the contradictions of capitalism to the wider sphere of the world market and, in particular, gives an international character to the crises of overproduction. Thirdly, the need for foreign markets is due to the fact that capitalist production is characterized by a constant transformation of the modes of production and a tendency to increase the size of production. If the law of pre-capitalist formations is the repetition of the production process on the same scale, on the same technical basis, then "... the capitalist enterprise inevitably outgrows the boundaries of the community, the local market, the region, and then the state", which leads each industry "... to the need to “look for an external market” (ibid., p. 57).

The relative narrowness of the home market of the capitalist countries enhances the role of foreign markets and leads to an intensification of the struggle for these markets. The struggle for foreign markets is also intensified in connection with the desire of the capitalists to speed up the export of goods to economically backward countries at prices higher than on the domestic market, in order to extract the maximum profit. In the struggle for markets, the capitalists make extensive use of the state apparatus and combine the methods of "peaceful" trade with the methods of violence, robbery and robbery. Slogans of "free trade" in history International trade capitalist countries have always been only a cover for the desire of economically developed countries to freely penetrate foreign markets and exploit less developed countries, selling finished products there at high prices and exporting raw materials and foodstuffs from there.

During the period of pre-monopoly capitalism International trade grew rapidly on the basis of the involvement of new areas of the globe in international trade. By 1880, the turnover of world trade had increased 10 times compared to 1800 and 3.5 times compared to 1850. This period was characterized by the industrial monopoly of England and its leading role in world trade.

In the era of imperialism, capitalist International trade acquired new features determined by the dominance of monopolies. Monopoly capital has widely developed offensive protectionism, capturing foreign markets with the help of dumping and other aggressive methods International trade There has been a huge development export of capital , which is used to increase the export of goods and capture profitable markets and sources of raw materials.

For development International trade a certain influence is exerted by such factors as the geographical location of a given country, the presence of rich and large mineral deposits, convenient natural routes of communication, etc. However, as K. Marx emphasized, the decisive influence on the formation of the international division of labor, on the structure and direction of international trade is exerted not by natural and geographical, but by socio-economic factors, on which it depends whether they are used at all, to what extent and for what purposes natural features and advantages of individual countries for development International trade This is clearly seen from the fact, for example, that the developing countries, which possess enormous natural wealth, vast territory and human resources, occupy a small place in world capitalist trade.

capitalist International trade reflects the ugly division of labor, in which industrial production and export of finished goods (especially machinery and equipment) are concentrated mainly in the imperialist states, while economically backward countries act mainly as producers and exporters of agricultural raw materials and importers of industrial products. The creation of the colonial system of imperialism led to the transformation of the colonial and dependent countries into raw material appendages of the mother countries. financial capital the latter began to exploit the population of the colonies and dependent countries through non-equivalent exchange - the sale of industrial products of the metropolises at monopolistically high prices and the pumping out of raw materials and food from the colonies at low prices. Major part of the turnover International trade of all capitalist countries fell on the mutual trade turnover between the industrialized countries, whose population is an insignificant part of the world's population. Thus, the share of 11 capitalist countries - USA, Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Belgium. The Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada - before the First World War of 1914-18 accounted for over 55% of all international trade, while the population of these countries accounted for about 20% of the world's population; China and India, where 40% of the world's population lived, accounted for no more than 5% of world trade.

Tab. 1. - The volume of trade turnover of the capitalist countries (billion dollars)

	Export								Import
	1950	1955	1960	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1950	1955	1960	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969
Total	55,5	83,4	111,8	162,9	178,6	187,7	210,9	240,6	58,3	88,6	117,9	172,7	189,6	199,0	222,2	252,4
Including:
industrialized countries	36,8	60,0	84,8	126,7	140,0	147,7	166,4	191,4	41,2	64,4	87,9	135,0	149,0	57,0	175,6	202,2
Developing countries	18,7	23,4	27,0	36,2	38,6	40,0	44,5	49,2	17,1	24,2	30,0	37,7	40,6	42,0	46,6	50,2
Of them:
Asian countries	8,5	10,2	12,2	16,3	17,4	18,4	20,4	22,6	7,4	10,2	13,6	18,0	19,4	19,5	22,3	24,0
Latin American countries	7,1	8,6	9,3	12,0	12,7	12,7	14,1	15,0	6,3	8,6	9,6	11,2	12,2	12,8	14,9	15,9
African countries	3,0	4,4	5,3	7,6	8,2	8,4	9,7	11,1	3,4	5,3	6,6	7,9	8,2	8,2	8,7	9,3

International trade countries of the world capitalist economic system after World War II 1939-45 is distinguished by a number of features. Significantly increased (and continues to grow) the volume of trade International trade capitalist countries (see Table 1).

Increase International trade reflects the increased importance world capitalist market in the process of social reproduction. It is characteristic that the volume International trade growing faster than industrial output. If the index of industrial output of the capitalist countries (1963 = 100) rose from 86 in 1960 to 126 in 1967, then the index of the physical volume of exports increased from 84 to 134, and of imports from 83 to 135. On changes in the position of individual countries in the world capitalist market can be judged from the following data (see Table 2).

Tab. 2. - Share of selected countries

in export capitalist world (%)

	1948	1969
The whole capitalist world	100	100
Western Europe	33,0	49,5
Including:
Germany	1,1	12,1
Great Britain	12,1	7,7
France	3,8	6,3
Italy	2,0	4,9
USA	23,8	16,0
Japan	0,4	6,5

The trade turnover of the industrial capitalist states is growing rapidly, especially their mutual turnover. The share of developing countries in the total exports of the capitalist world is decreasing (in 1967 it was only 21.2% against 28.5% in 1955). Trade between imperialist and developing countries is to a large extent a tool for the exploitation of the latter, in particular through the export of capital and unequal exchange.

Significant changes have taken place and are taking place in the commodity structure International trade capitalist countries. These changes are connected with the prevailing growth in exports of finished goods compared with the growth in exports of raw materials and foodstuffs (at the same time, exports of machinery, equipment and means of transport are growing especially rapidly), and also with the fact that some imperialist countries have become large producers and exporters of agricultural products. commodities (see table. 3.). This further worsens the position of the developing countries on the world capitalist market and increases the ratio of export and import prices, which is unfavorable for these countries.

Tab. 3. - The structure of world capitalist exports (1968, billion dollars)

Goods	Total	Including
Goods	Total	from developed countries	from developing countries
Agricultural commodities	74,9	40,7	34,2
Including:
Raw materials	23,9	15,5	8,4
Fuel	20,3	5,5	14,8
Finished goods	133,9	124,3	9,6
Including:
cars and equipment	57,6	56,9	0,7
Chemical products	15,7	15,0	0,7

The main part of the export of finished goods on the world capitalist market (85.8% in 1967) falls to 11 countries: the USA, the FRG, Great Britain, Japan, France, Italy, Canada, Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland, among which decisive positions are occupied by leading imperialist powers. In the 60s. exports of finished products from Germany grew rapidly, which overtook Great Britain and came close to the level of the USA, and in the 2nd half of the 60s. - exports from Japan and Italy (see Table 4).

On the International trade capitalist countries are increasingly affected by the development of state-monopoly capitalism, state regulation of the monetary system, and international state-monopoly associations. It is characteristic, for example, that during the existence (since 1959) of the closed economic grouping of six Western European states of the Common Market, the mutual trade of the member countries has grown much more (from $7.5 billion in 1958 to $28.9 billion in 1968) than their trade with “third” countries (from $15.9 billion to $35.3 billion, respectively) and especially with developing countries (from $6.1 billion to only $9.3 billion). . dollars).

Tab. 4. - Export of finished products from developed capitalist countries (billion dollars)

Country	years
Country	1960	1968
USA.	13,00	23,65
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