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Geography of Great Britain: relief, climate, minerals, flora and fauna. UK agriculture UK water resources

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland or Great Britain - a sovereign state located off the northeastern coast of continental Europe. It occupies the island of Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales), one sixth of the island of Ireland (Northern Ireland), as well as many nearby small islands. The main territory of the country lies between 49°N. and 59°N (Shetland Islands are located near 61°N) and 8°W. and 2°E The Greenwich Observatory, located in southeast London, is the origin of geographical longitudes, the zero meridian passes through it.

Great Britain is washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea. The minimum distance to Europe is 35 km. The country is separated from France by the English Channel and the Pas de Calais. Northern Ireland has a 360 km long land border with the Republic of Ireland. A tunnel has been built between the UK and France under the Pas de Calais. Great Britain, which includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and a number of nearby small islands, has an area of 243,610 square meters. km. The area of England - the largest country in the UK - 130,410 square meters. km, the area of Scotland is 78,772 sq. km. Wales and Northern Ireland are much smaller in area - 20,758 sq. km and 13,843 sq. km, respectively.

Relief of Great Britain

According to the features of the relief, the territory of the United Kingdom can be divided into two main areas. High Britain (including Northern Ireland), located in the north and west of the country, is underlain by stable ancient bedrock and consists of mostly heavily dissected uplands and much less common lowlands. To the south and east extends Low Britannia, characterized by hilly terrain, low elevations, and a few mountainous regions; at its base lie younger sedimentary rocks. In a south-westerly direction from Newcastle at the mouth of the Tyne River to Exeter at the mouth of the Ex River in south Devon, the border between High and Low Britain runs. This boundary is not everywhere clearly defined, and often the transitions between High and Low Britain are smoothed out.

At the base of the mountains throughout Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales, the Lower Paleozoic folded structures rest, and in the south of Wales and in the south of Cornwall - Hercynian. These ancient mountain structures were subjected to intense erosion and destruction for a long time, which led to the leveling of their surface.

As a result, the newest uplifts, which occurred in several stages and were accompanied by discontinuous movements, the mountains were fragmented into a number of massifs and acquired a mosaic structure. Leveled surfaces of different heights are very characteristic. Mountain tops often have a flattened shape. The mountains of Great Britain are relatively easily accessible, and there are numerous roads along low watersheds and wide passes.

UK statistics
(as of 2012)

Quaternary glaciation intensified the smoothing of the mountains, as a result, in the most elevated regions, an alpine-type relief was formed with sharp jagged ridges and peaks, glacial cirques and typical valleys. A significant role in the modeling of the relief was played by erosion processes, which are actively taking place at the present time. In many lowland areas, erosion has severely, and in some places completely erased the glacier-accumulation landforms that formed in the era when the ice sheets descended from the mountains to the plains. It is known that, for example, during the maximum glaciation, ice approached the Thames valley, but the extreme south of England was never covered with ice.

UK climate

The climate of Great Britain, due to the influence of the Gulf Stream, is temperate oceanic, humid, with mild winters and cool summers, strong winds and fogs. Thanks to the North Atlantic Current and warm winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean, the UK generally has mild winters.

But these same winds explain cloudy weather, frequent rains and fogs. The average annual temperature is around 11°C in the south and around 9°C in the northeast. The average July temperature in London is about 18°C, the average January temperature is about 4.5°C. The average annual rainfall (the heaviest rains come in October) is about 760 mm. Scotland is the coldest region in the UK, although the climate is generally quite mild. The average January temperature is about 3°C, and snow often falls in the mountains in the north. The average July temperature is around 15°C. a large number of precipitation falls in the west of the Highlands region (about 3810 mm per year), the least - in some eastern regions (about 635 mm per year).

The climate of Wales is the same as the climate of England, mild and humid. The average January temperature is about 5.5° C. The average July temperature is about 15.5° C. The average annual rainfall is about 762 mm in the central coastal region and more than 2540 mm in the Snowdon massif. Northern Ireland has a mild and humid climate. The average annual temperature is about 10°C (about 14.5°C in July and about 4.5°C in January). The amount of precipitation in the north often exceeds 1016 mm per year, while in the south it is about 760 mm per year.

The main reasons for the increased rainfall in the UK are the presence of a low pressure area that stretches across the Atlantic Ocean to the east; southwest winds prevailing during the year; and the fact that most of mountains is located in the west of the country. Frosty weather sets in for a long time with the intrusion of cold air from the east and northeast.

Snow falls throughout the country, but very unevenly. In the mountainous regions of Scotland, the snow cover lasts for at least 1-1.5 months. In the south of England, and especially in its southwest, snow falls very rarely and lasts no more than a week. Here the grass is green all year round. In the west of the UK, winters typically receive twice as much rain as summers. In the eastern regions, winters are colder and less humid.

The weather in the British Isles has become notorious for its variability and treacherousness due to the climate conditions listed. In these latitudes, summer days are long and winter days are very short. Even on the long July days, the southern coast gets only seven hours of sunshine on average, while the northern part of the country gets less than five hours a day. Flaw sunlight occurs due to increased cloudiness, and not due to fogs, as is commonly believed. The famous London fogs of the past enveloped the city because of the thick smoke from burning coal for space heating, and not due to meteorological conditions. However, wet damp fog is still recorded in London on average 45 days a year, mainly in January and February, and in most ports there are from 15 to 30 foggy days each year, and fog can paralyze all traffic for a couple of days or more. .

Meteorologists often make mistakes in their predictions, which is why Britons often hear the vague "changeable" or "unstable" in weather forecasts. Unpredictable weather has long been a national treasure of the British, a topic of daily conversation, and for some, a defining factor in the character of the nation. The British tend to think they live in a milder climate than they really are, but many flee abroad in both summer and winter.

UK water resources

The UK is rich in water resources. Almost throughout the country, except for some southeastern regions, the amount of precipitation exceeds evaporation, and therefore a dense network of full-flowing rivers is developed. The largest of them are the Severn, which has a length of 354 km, and the Thames - 338 km, the basins of which border on each other. The Thames has highest value for the UK economy. 1/5 of the total population of the country lives in its basin.

There are many rivers, they are short, but close to each other and, with low watersheds, are easily connected by canals, which at one time made it possible to create a dense network of waterways based on them, which were widely used before the development of railway transport, and now more for sports purposes. The importance of the estuaries of rivers that go far into the land is very great, as well as the general large indentation coastline. This allowed many ports to be created; some have grown into large industrial hubs. Good accessibility for maritime transport is especially important for an island country.

The rivers of the lowland part of the country are calm. In the mountainous regions of Scotland and Wales, the sources of the rivers are at significant heights, so the flow of the rivers is fast, they often overflow their banks, especially during the rainy season. The fast flowing rivers of northwest Scotland and Wales are used to generate electricity. More than 60 hydroelectric power plants have been built here.

The estuaries of the largest rivers in Great Britain - the Thames, the Severn, the Humber, the Mersey, the Clyde and the Forth - are wide, artificially deepened and straightened bays. They are the largest seaports and industrial hubs. At high tide, salt water penetrates the estuaries far upstream, so the population of most seaports is supplied with drinking water from the headwaters of rivers, underground reservoirs and mountain lakes.

The largest lakes in Great Britain are Loch Tay (about 400 sq. km) in northern Ireland, as well as Loch Lomond and Loch Ness in Scotland. Numerous lakes of Highland Scotland and the Lake Circle are very picturesque and attract many tourists. They serve as a flow regulator and are used as local transport routes. So Loch Ness and Loch Lomond, located in the Great Glen and connected by a canal, constitute a direct waterway between the east and west coasts of Scotland. The Lake Circle has long been a supplier of fresh water to Manchester, which receives it through two aqueducts over 100 km long. In the flat part of Great Britain there are many artificial reservoirs created on the site of former peat extraction, sand and gravel pits.

Underground reservoirs have long served as the main source of high-quality water for the population of the lowlands of England. Currently, underground reservoirs provide 2/5 of all water consumed in England and Wales. In addition to natural waterways, significant work has been done to improve access to seaports, such as dredging on the lower Clyde and Mersey, and a wide network of canals, especially in England, between the North Midlands and the Thames Valley. The Caledonian Canal connects Inverness and Fort William in the Great Glen, another canal links the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth in Scotland. In England, canals have been built between the rivers Dee and Mersey, Mersey and Ayr, Trent and Mersey, Avon (a tributary of the Severn) and Welland and Thames and Severn.

UK soils

Podzolic and brown forest soils are widespread in the soil cover of the country, and humus-calcareous soils are found on limestones. The mechanical composition is dominated by clay and loamy soils. Due to the abundance of rainfall, the soils are highly leached. In general, the soils of Great Britain have been cultivated for a long time and give high yields.

Podzolized brown forest soils have been preserved under natural and perennial pastures on swampy coastal lowlands - marches - and in some other flat areas of England that have undergone reclamation. Fertile peaty alluvial soils are common in the drained marine lowlands of Fenland, as well as in the valley of the Trent River.

Here, more than in other regions of the country, wheat is sown, orchards and berry fields are planted, and intensive gardening is practiced. Thin humus-calcareous and soddy-calcareous soils are developed on the uplands and kuest ridges. In the western and northwestern regions of Great Britain, acidic brown podzolic soils predominate, grasses grow better here, and oats and barley from cereals, which determines livestock specialization. In the highlands of Cornwall, the Pennines, the Lake Circle and Scotland, where the climate is humid and cool, soddy-podzolic soils are developed, which are easily subject to waterlogging, leading to the formation of peat bogs. Pastures with coarse herbage predominate there.

Minerals of Great Britain

The UK has significant mineral reserves. It is especially rich in coal, the total reserves of which are 189 billion tons, including recoverable - 45 billion tons. Its deposits are found in all economic regions of the country, except for the three southern and Northern Ireland. The largest are concentrated in three coal basins: Yorkshire and Northumberland-Durham, located in the foothills of the Pennines, and South Wales, on the southern slope of the Welsh mountains. Many coal basins came close to the sea coast, and coal could be easily transported. At present, the role of coal is no longer so great, its extraction has decreased, the best seams have been worked out, and the use of deep mines has become unprofitable.

In the 1960s and 1970s, large new energy resources were found on the shelf of the North Sea - oil and natural gas. The deposits are located off the coast of southeast England and northeast Scotland. Oil reserves - 2 billion tons, natural gas - 2 trillion. m3. Their intensive development has changed the overall assessment of the UK's energy supply and put it in a more advantageous position compared to EU partners. The largest offshore deposits are Fortis and Brent, on the mainland - Witchfarm in Dorset. The main coal deposits (substantially depleted) are Yorkshire - Derby - Nottinghamshire Basin in the East Middland, Northumberland - Durham Basin in the North East of England.

The UK also has significant reserves and iron ore(reliable and probable - 4.6 billion tons). The main deposit is located in the east of Northamptonshire, but, with the exception of the now mined rich hematite ores of Cumberland, most of the rest are of low quality (22–33% of the metal). Currently, mining has been stopped, the industry uses rich imported ore. As for other minerals, there is a large deposit of kaolin in Cornwall, also rock salt in Cheshire and Durham, potash salt in Yorkshire, and some non-ferrous metals in very small quantities (including tin in the west of Cornwall). Uranium ore found in Scotland.

Flora of Great Britain

The vegetation of England is quite poor, forests occupy less than 10% of the region. Basically, they are preserved along the river valleys and in the lower parts of the mountain slopes. In Scotland, forests are more common, although moorland dominates the region. Oak and coniferous trees(spruce, pine and larch). Oak, elm, hornbeam, beech and ash grow in the lower belt of the mountains of England and Wales. The upper limit of the forest reaches 500-600 m, and broad-leaved forests usually do not rise above 400 m.

In the perennial meadows of England and Wales grow wild pale yellow daffodils (the emblem of the Welsh), lilies, purple orchid and primrose, which have long been used to make wine in English villages. Above the forest line in the mountains of England and Wales, cereal-forb meadows and moorlands with juniper, blueberry and crowberry predominate. In the south of the country there are evergreen Mediterranean plant species. Plants vegetate all year round.

Animal world of Great Britain

There are a lot of salmon and trout in the rivers and lakes of Scotland. Cod, herring, haddock are caught in coastal waters. The fauna is practically the same as in England, with the exception of the black polecat, which is not found in England. Different kinds fish are found in the waters near the British Isles: in the surface layers of sea waters - coal fish, herring, sprat feed in bays and estuaries of rivers, and sardines and mackerel appear off the coast of the Kirkwall Peninsula. The most important commercial fish of far and near waters are cod, haddock and marlan. Some cod individuals weigh up to 20 kilograms. Also in rivers and lakes there are roach, chub, barbel. The famous monster of Loch Ness, which could supposedly be a relic aquatic dinosaur, is most likely a fiction invented to attract tourists and various types of businesses.

The gray seal is found near the islands and coastal cliffs of Cornwall and Wales, while the common seal prefers the coasts of Scotland, the eastern coasts of Northern Ireland and the islands adjacent to them.

More than 200 species of birds can be seen in England, of which more than half come from other countries. The British Isles are home to 130 species of birds, including many songbirds. Many species are able to adapt to changing conditions, and it is believed that there are more birds in suburban gardens than in any forest. The most common sparrows, finches, starlings, crows, kingfishers, robins, tits. The national symbol of England is the red-breasted robin. Millions of birds migrate along the coast of Great Britain from south to north and back.

Natural resources

In general, the flat regions of England have long been widely used for settlement and agricultural development. Somewhat later, mountainous regions began to be developed, where at first rich pasture lands, and later mineral resources, served as an important incentive for this.

In the course of the complex geological history of the islands, a variety of minerals were formed in their bowels. Almost all known minerals are found there, except for diamonds. Particularly rich are the coal deposits in the Pennines, on the Scottish Lowlands, in the foothills of South Wales, whose commercial reserves amount to 4 billion tons. The largest iron ore deposit is in the East Midlands: 60% of all reserves are concentrated here. Significant reserves of rock and potash salts found in Cheshire and Durham.

Lead-zinc and hematite ores were found in the Cambedlen massif, and lead-zinc and tin ores were found in Cornwall. Much hope is placed on the oil and gas of the North Sea, the total reserves of which amount to 2.6 billion tons and 1,400 billion cubic meters, respectively. m.

There are not so many valuable natural resources in the UK. The once-important iron ore production has now dropped to near zero. Other economically important mineral ores include lead, which only half meets the needs of the economy, and zinc. There are quite a few other resources. For example, chalk, lime, clay, sand, gypsum.

On the other hand, the UK has more energy resources, including oil, natural gas and coal, than any other country in the European Community. Once a vital source of energy, coal continues to lose its importance. If we compare coal production in 1913, when more than 300 million tons of coal were produced by more than one million workers, with today, it turns out that coal production has fallen by more than three times with an even greater decrease in the level of workers employed in the mining industry. Power plants still consume large amounts of coal, but with increasing competition from alternative fuels, coal mining is not in the best position.

The discovery of oil deposits in the North Sea led to the rapid development of the oil industry. Since the start of operation in 1975, the amount of oil produced annually has increased every year, which has made the UK almost self-sufficient in terms of oil consumption, and even its exporter. With an average production of 2.6 million barrels per day, the UK is the sixth largest oil producer in the world. Oil reserves in the UK reach 770 million tons.

With the start of natural gas production in 1967, coal in the cities was gradually replaced by gas, and a gas pipeline was built throughout the country. Natural gas reserves are estimated at 22.7 trillion cubic feet.

The soil

The most fertile soils of Great Britain are located in its warm and relatively dry south-eastern part, where they were formed mainly on calcareous rocks. Relatively high summer temperatures here contribute to increased biological activity and accumulation of humus in the upper soil layer. Initially, this whole area was covered with broad-leaved forests, under which brown forest soils formed. Currently, the soils are heavily cultivated as a result of long-term use for crops of barley, wheat and sugar beets, as well as grasses. On swampy coastal lowlands - marshes - and in some other flat areas of England that have undergone reclamation, brown forest podzolized soils have been preserved under natural and perennial pastures. On the drained sea lowlands of Fenland, as well as in the valley of the Trend River, fairly fertile peaty alluvial soils are common. In these areas, more than in other regions of the country, wheat is sown, orchards and berries are planted, and intensive horticulture is practiced. Thin humus-calcareous and soddy-calcareous soils are developed on the uplands and kuest ridges. In the western and northwestern regions of Great Britain, acid brown podzolic soils predominate. These lands are used for grass-sowing and as natural pastures. Of the grain crops, mainly barley is grown here. In the highlands of Cornwall, the Pennines, the Lake Circle and Scotland, where the climate is humid and cool, soddy-podzolic soils are developed, which are easily swamped, leading to the formation of peat bogs. Pastures with coarse herbage predominate there.

Nature

People uprooted forests, drained swamps, changed the species composition of flora and fauna, and introduced a large amount of fertilizer into the soil. Now the country is carrying out afforestation. Exotic species of trees (Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, thin-scaled larch) were imported from other countries and widespread. Currently, forests cover only 10% of the area of Great Britain. Basically, they are preserved along the river valleys and in the lower parts of the mountain slopes. Oak, elm, hornbeam, beech and ash grow in the lower belt of the mountains of England and Wales. In the north of Scotland, in the Grampian Mountains and in the Northwest Highlands, the lower mountain belt is occupied by mixed oak-spruce-pine forests, and pine and birch forests are common above. The upper forest limit reaches 500-600 m, and broad-leaved forests usually do not rise above 400 m. These are the lowest rates for the whole of Eurasia, due to strong moisture and the impact of livestock grazing.

In the natural perennial meadows of England and Wales grow wild pale yellow daffodils (the emblem of the Welsh), lilies, purple orchid and primrose, from which wine has long been made in English villages. Above the forest line in the mountains of England and Wales, cereal-forb meadows and moorlands with juniper, blueberry and crowberry predominate.

Many large mammals, such as the bear, wild boar and Irish red deer, have long been extirpated in the British Isles as a result of intense hunting, and the wolf has been extirpated as a pest. Now only 56 species of mammals remain, 13 of which are introduced. The largest representative of mammals - the red deer lives in the uplands of Cornwall, in the Scottish Highlands. There are quite a few roe deer that are found north of Yorkshire and in the south of England. Wild goats live in mountainous areas. The gray seal is found near the islands and coastal cliffs of Cornwall and Wales, while the common seal prefers the coasts of Scotland, the eastern coasts of Northern Ireland and the islands adjacent to them. There are no large predatory animals in Great Britain. Throughout the country, except for the highlands, foxes and badgers are found on the edges of forests and in groves. The otter is widespread and heavily hunted. Of the small predators, the ermine and weasel are the most numerous, ferrets are found in Wales, and wild European cats and American martens are found in the mountains of Scotland.

The British Isles are home to 130 species of birds, including many songbirds. The national symbol of England is the red-breasted zaryanka. Millions of birds migrate along the coast of Great Britain from south to north and back.

In connection with the large work on the implementation of swamps in the country, the population of ducks, geese and other waterfowl has significantly decreased. Therefore, in last years Special areas have been allocated for the protection and breeding of these species. The organization of reserves contributed to a significant change in the animal world of the British Isles.

Various types of fish are found in the waters off the British Isles: sable fish are found in the surface layers of sea waters, there are a lot of herring from May to October, sprat feed in the bays and estuaries of rivers, and sardines and mackerel appear off the coast of the Cornish Peninsula. The most important commercial fish of far and near waters are cod, haddock and whiting.

The inconvenience of smoke-shrouded cities at the time of the industrial revolution made the British appreciate and protect the rural landscape. In the British Isles, it is not uncommon to find hedges, "English" gardens, nurseries for development ornamental trees, shrubs and flowers. In the UK, there is a special category of "protected" areas. In such places, new construction is limited or prohibited. Protected areas include "green belts" around major cities and conurbations, nature reserves, animal reserves, national forest parks, scenic spots, fertile agricultural land, coastal paths, and mountain slopes above 250 m above sea level. There are 131 reserves for separately protected species of flora and fauna. On the territory of England and Wales, 10 national parks have been created with a total area of about 12 thousand square meters. km.

The problem of combating environmental pollution, especially in cities, has become more acute. Concerned about the level of environmental pollution, especially in cities. The level of air pollution is worrying, the question arises of how to eliminate 20 million various wastes annually.

The problem of land resources is very acute. It is estimated that in England and Wales by the end of the century about 2.5 million hectares of agricultural land will be used for other purposes. Mining will destroy as many landscapes as in the previous two centuries, the most serious enemy of natural landscapes being sand and gravel pits. They cause more damage to the area than coal mining.

Relief

Natural features of Great Britain are in many respects similar to the neighboring countries of Western Europe. This is not surprising, since the British Isles, located within the shelf, separated from the mainland only in recent geological time. The coastline of the North Sea and the English Channel took shape close to modern only a few thousand years ago.

The island position of Great Britain, the proximity of the warm North Atlantic current, the strong dissection of the coastline, nevertheless, left a certain imprint on the nature of this country. This is reflected in the predominance of moderate temperatures, increased moisture, an extraordinary abundance of surface water, the spread of broad-leaved forests and moorlands.

Great Britain is clearly divided into two parts according to the structure of the surface. A line passing through the cities of Newcastle, Sheffield and Bristol to Lyme Bay separates the mountainous northwest from the flat and hilly ridge southeast. In general, mountainous regions occupy a slightly larger area and have a rather complex geological structure.

At the base of the mountains throughout Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales lie the Lower Paleozoic folded structures, and in the south of Wales and in the south of Cornwall - geocinthic. These ancient mountain structures were subjected to intense erosion and destruction for a long time, which led to the leveling of their surface. In the Alpine era, uplifts contributed to the revival of the medium-altitude mountains of Great Britain, and due to the unevenness of these uplifts, the western parts of the mountains turned out to be much higher than the eastern ones.

Such orographic asymmetry, as a rule, is inherent in all mountain structures of Great Britain, and, accordingly, the main watershed is shifted towards the west coast. The western steep and precipitous shores differ sharply from the gentle low-lying shores that prevail in the east of the country.

The latest uplifts occurred in several stages and were accompanied by discontinuous movements, and in some places, for example, in Northern Ireland, in the north-west of Scotland, and ruptures of basalt layers. As a result, the mountains were fragmented into a number of massifs and acquired a mosaic structure. Leveled surfaces of different heights are very characteristic. Mountain tops often have a flattened shape. The mountains of Great Britain are relatively easily accessible, and there are numerous roads along low watersheds and wide passes.

Quaternary glaciation in general increased the smoothing of the mountains of Great Britain, and only in the most elevated areas an alpine-type relief was formed with sharp jagged ridges and peaks, glacial cirques and typical valleys. A significant role in the modeling of the relief was played by erosive processes, which are actively taking place at the present time. In many lowland areas, erosion has severely, and in some places completely erased the glacier-accumulation landforms that formed in the era when the ice sheets descended from the mountains to the plains. It is known that, for example, during the maximum glaciation, ice approached the Thames valley, but the extreme south of England was never covered with ice.

The northern, most elevated part of Great Britain is occupied by the Scottish Highlands, rising steeply to the west. To the east, the highlands gradually decrease and are replaced by coastal lowlands. The deep and narrow rectilinear depression of the Glen More serves as the border of large parts of the North Scottish Highlands - the Northwest Highlands and the Gramnian Mountains with the majestic peak of Ben Nevis (1343), the highest point of the whole country.

The Grampian Mountains drop steeply to a vast depression occupied by the middle Scottish lowlands, the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. As part of a thick layer of sedimentary rocks that fill the depression, productive horizons of Devonian coals are distinguished, which are very intensively developed here. The South Scottish Highlands are characterized by a highly dissected relief. Heights average about 600 m, and the highest point - Mount Merrick - reaches 842 m. The administrative border of England and Scotland passes along the Cheviot ridge.

In the north of England in the meridian direction stretch the Pennines, rising an average of 700 m, and composed of Carboniferous sedimentary rocks. Karst is widespread in their northern limestone part. Here is the highest point of Penin - Mount Cross Fell (893 m). At the foot of the Peniny Mountains, rich productive strata of coal lie shallow. On the basis of these deposits, large mining centers of the Lankshire, Yorkshire and other basins arose.

The massive Cumberland Mountains approach the Peniny in the northwest, composed mainly of Cambrian-Silurian shales and ancient rocks of volcanic origin. This domed uplift with the summit of Scofell (978 m) is heavily dissected by radial valleys that have formed at the site of faults. In the upper part of the mountains, glacial landforms and numerous lakes have been preserved, because of which this area was called the "Lake Circle".

The mountains of Wales, united under the name of the Cambrian, are most elevated in the north, where Mount Snowdon rises (1085 m). In the south of Wales there are large deposits of hard coal.

Northern Ireland is dominated by plateaus and uplands. Among them, the most famous is the Antrim basalt plateau in the extreme northeast of the island, reaching a height of more than 550 m. Under the influence of weathering, peculiar forms of weathering with columnar structures arose in places. One of these areas is called the "Road of the Giants" for its resemblance to the end of the pavement.

For most of England, the alternation of flat plains with rolling cuesta ridges is typical. The cuestas are usually composed of limestone or writing chalk, and the plains are composed of looser rocks: sands, marls, clays. The accumulation of all these sedimentary rocks took place in ancient marine basins. The gentle peaks of the cuestas are characterized by the development of karst, and on many plains a cover of glacial deposits (moraine) has been preserved. These deposits are particularly widespread in the Midland Plains, located between the Cambrian and Penine Mountains and famous for its rich grasslands. Deposits of coal and iron ore are associated with small hills.

From the east, the Midland Plain is bordered by a long chain of Jurassic limestone cuestas: Cotswold, Edge, etc. In the direction of the southwest, they are replaced by narrow flat plains, which in turn give way to the Chiltern Vermel cuestas, gradually turning into an undulating London Plain composed of Paleogene clays. In the axial part of this plain is the Thames valley.

Climate

The oceanic nature of the UK climate is reflected in the predominance of unstable weather with gusty winds and thick fogs throughout the year. Winters are very wet and unusually mild, with a sharp temperature anomaly (about 12-15 degrees) compared to the average latitude. The average temperature of the coldest month - January - does not fall below +3.5 degrees even in the extreme north-east of Great Britain, and in the south-west it reaches +5.5 degrees, and plants grow there all year round. Masses of warm sea air coming from the southwest increase winter temperatures, but at the same time bring cloudy and rainy weather with strong winds and storms. With the invasion of cold air from the east and northeast, frosty weather sets in for a long time. Snow in winter falls throughout the country, but very unevenly. In the mountainous regions of Scotland, the snow cover lasts for at least 1-1.5 months. In the south of England, and especially in its southwest, snow falls very rarely and lasts no more than a week. Here the grass is green all year round. In the west of the UK, winters typically receive twice as much rain as summers. In the eastern regions, winters are colder and less humid.

In spring, cold northerly winds blow, significantly delaying the growth of crops in the east of Scotland, and sometimes dry easterlies. This time of year is usually the least rainy. Spring in the British Isles is cooler and longer than at the same latitudes on the continent.

In the UK, as in other countries with maritime climate, the summer is relatively cool: the average temperature of the warmest month - July - is 1-2 degrees lower than at the same latitudes of the mainland. In the summer months, cyclonic activity decreases, and the distribution of average temperatures in July is more consistent with latitudinal zoning: +16 degrees in the southeast of the country, and +12 degrees in the extreme northwest. The maximum temperature in the south-east of England sometimes rises above +27 degrees, and sometimes up to +32 degrees. The maximum precipitation here occurs in the second half of summer.

In autumn, cyclonic activity intensifies, the weather becomes cloudy and rainy, sometimes with severe storms, especially in September and October. When warm air is carried to the chilled surface of the islands, there are often fogs on the coasts.

With warm and humid winds blowing from the Atlantic, there is an abundance of rain in the western regions of Great Britain. On average, 2000 mm of precipitation falls there per year, while in eastern England, located in the "rain shadow", - only about 600 mm, and in some places even 500 mm. The mountains thus serve as a natural barrier to trap moist air on the western side. The abundance of precipitation adversely affects the growth of many crops, especially wheat and barley. In general, grains in the British Isles do well in drier years, but then the grasses often burn out.

The UK is rich in water resources. Almost throughout the country, except for some southeastern regions, the amount of precipitation exceeds evaporation, and therefore a dense network of full-flowing rivers is developed. The largest of them are the Severn, which has a length of 354 km, and the Thames (338 km), whose basins border on each other. The Thames is of the greatest importance for the UK economy. 1/5 of the total population of the country lives in its basin. Here is the capital conurbation - Greater London.

The rivers of the lowland part of the country, located east of the main watershed, are calm. In the mountainous regions of Scotland and Wales, the sources of the rivers are at significant heights, so the flow of the rivers is fast, they often overflow their banks, especially during the rainy season. The short but deep and fast rivers of northwestern Scotland and Wales are used to generate electricity. More than 60 hydroelectric power plants have been built here. The estuaries of the largest rivers in Great Britain - the Thames, the Severn, the Humber, the Mersey, the Clyde and the Forth - are wide, artificially deepened and straightened bays. They are the largest seaports and industrial hubs. At high tide, salt water penetrates the estuaries far upstream, so the population of most seaports is supplied with drinking water from the headwaters of rivers, underground reservoirs and mountain lakes.

The largest lakes in Great Britain are Loch Neagh (about 400 sq. km) in northern Ireland, as well as Loch Lomond and Loch Ness in Scotland. The numerous lakes of the Highlands of Scotland and the Lake Circle are very picturesque and attract many tourists. They serve as a flow regulator and are used as local transport routes. So Loch Ness and Loch Lochy, located in the Great Glen and connected by a canal, constitute a direct waterway between the east and west coasts of Scotland. The Lake Circle has long been a supplier of fresh water to Manchester, which receives it through two aqueducts over 100 km long. There are no large lakes in the flat part of Great Britain, but there are many artificial reservoirs created on the site of former peat extraction, sand and gravel pits.

Underground reservoirs have long served as the main source of high quality water for the population of the lowlands of England. The largest underground pool, whose area reaches almost 30 thousand square meters. km, located under the Cretaceous limestones in the south-east of England. Currently, underground reservoirs provide 2/5 of all water consumed in England and Wales.

The area is 244.8 thousand km2. Population - 60.4 million people

A constitutional monarchy is a unitary state with autonomous entities (England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands). Capital -. London

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Great Britain is an island state in the northeastern part. Atlantic Ocean, from the mainland. Europe is separated by a strait. English Channel. Except the island. Great Britain, it includes the north-eastern part of the island. Ireland and a number of small islands. In the west, the state borders with. Ireland, which was a colony for more than 700 years. UK her. The nearest neighbors on the mainland -. France i. B elgium. UK is a member. EU,. NATO and other integration associations, which contributes to the development of pan-European cooperation.

Great Britain is a central state. The Commonwealth is a political and economic association of countries and territories that were previously part of. British. Empires (49 states and territories) in the composition. The Commonwealth includes 14 states, among them such highly developed ones as. Canada,. Australia,. New. Zealand*.

Location. Great Britain on the islands contributes to the development of maritime transport and access to international maritime trade routes. A tunnel laid at the narrowest point of the strait. English Channel, connects. Great Britain with the mainland. This greatly improves it. EGGP.

Population

In terms of population, the country ranks second among European countries after. Germany. For. Great Britain has long been characterized by low natural population growth, which today is more than 1 per 1,000 people per year. For several years, even a slight decrease in the population of the state was observed. Right now in. Britain's population is slowly growing due to the insignificant nature of one increase and the influx of foreigners. The low birth rate against the background of a significant average life expectancy (78 years) leads to the aging process of the nation.

The national composition of the population is motley. More than 80% are British, about 4% - Welsh (Welsh), 2% - Irish, about 5.2% - Scots and over 4% - immigrants from the states. Commonwealth and others. From the middle of the XX century about. 3000 people from Ukraine. Residents by religion. Great Britain belong to three denominations: the British and the Welsh are supporters of the Protestant Anglican Church; the Irish are Catholics; Scots are Protestants (Presbyterians).

Placed population. Great Britain on the territory unevenly. The average population density is about 240 people per 1 km2. The highest population density in England (350 people per 1 km2), the smallest in. Scotland India (more than 100 people per 1 km2). More than 90% of the population lives in cities. For. Great Britain is characterized by large agglomerations with a population of over 1 million people, in which one third of the urban population lives. Together with smaller agglomerations (about 30 in all) they form. English metropolis with population. 3 million people. Bridge-millionaire two -. London (7.6 million people) i. Birmingham. The countryside, in terms of the way I live, differs little from Miss Mist.

In the structure of employment of the population, about 80% are employed in the service sector, 19% - in industry and 1% - in agriculture. There is unemployment in the country, on average it reaches 5.5% annually.

Natural conditions and resources

. Island. Great Britain is rich in coal resources, whose reserves are currently very depleted. Largest coal basins -. Yorkshire, Newcastle (Northern England) and. Welsh. Oil and gas reserves are significant (the shelf of the North Sea). B. British sector. The North Sea contains significant deposits of oil and natural gas. Great Britain is the only European country of the "Big Seven" that fully meets its needs with its own oil and natural gas

The Nadra Islands contain small reserves of iron ore in the central coastal parts of the state, lead-zinc and tin ores on the peninsula. Cornwall (southwest. Great Britain). In the central parts. England has deposits of table and potash salts.

The state is relatively rich in water resources (the humid climate contributes to the full flow of the rivers). Only in the center. England is experiencing a shortage of water resources. Insignificant water resources are concentrated in the rivers. S. Scotland and. Wales.

Forest reserves in the country are insignificant. Only 10% of its territory is covered with forests and only 15% of the timber demand is covered by its own resources.

The country is dominated by a flat terrain. Significant areas are occupied by old destroyed mountains (Cambrian, Peninsky), which do not have a significant impact on the nature of the development of the territory

The country's climate is temperate maritime with mild winters and cool summers. It contributes to the cultivation of all crops of the temperate zone. On the western coast of the island, 2000 mm of precipitation falls, and on the eastern coast - 600 mm of precipitation on the river.

The UK has limited farmland resources. The soils of the state are quite fertile (brown forest, podzolic), but require a significant amount of mineral and organic fertilizers.

In the north. Scotland hosts a large lake district, characterized by significant recreational resources

UK soils

Minerals of Great Britain

The UK also has significant reserves of iron ores (reliable and probable - 4.6 billion tons). The main deposit is located in the east of Northamptonshire, but, with the exception of the now mined rich hematite ores of Cumberland, most of the rest are of low quality (22–33% of the metal). Currently, mining has been stopped, the industry uses rich imported ore. As for other minerals, there is a large deposit of kaolin in Cornwall, also rock salt in Cheshire and Durham, potash salt in Yorkshire, and some non-ferrous metals in very small quantities (including tin in the west of Cornwall). Uranium ore found in Scotland.

Flora of Great Britain

The vegetation of England is quite poor, forests occupy less than 10% of the region. Basically, they are preserved along the river valleys and in the lower parts of the mountain slopes. In Scotland, forests are more common, although moorland dominates the region. Oak and coniferous trees (spruce, pine and larch) grow mainly in the forests in the south and east of the Highlands. Oak, elm, hornbeam, beech and ash grow in the lower belt of the mountains of England and Wales. The upper limit of the forest reaches 500-600 m, and broad-leaved forests usually do not rise above 400 m.

Animal world of Great Britain

There are a lot of salmon and trout in the rivers and lakes of Scotland. Cod, herring, haddock are caught in coastal waters. The fauna is practically the same as in England, with the exception of the black polecat, which is not found in England. Various types of fish are found in the waters off the British Isles: in the surface layers of sea waters - sable fish, herring, sprat feed in the bays and estuaries of rivers, and sardines and mackerel appear off the coast of the Kirkwall Peninsula. The most important commercial fish of far and near waters are cod, haddock and marlan. Some cod individuals weigh up to 20 kilograms. Also in rivers and lakes there are roach, chub, barbel. The famous monster of Loch Ness, which could supposedly be a relic aquatic dinosaur, is most likely a fiction invented to attract tourists and various types of businesses.

Relief
According to the features of the relief, the territory of the United Kingdom can be divided into two main areas. High Britain (including Northern Ireland), located in the north and west of the country, is underlain by stable ancient bedrock and consists of mostly heavily dissected uplands and much less common lowlands. To the south and east extends Low Britannia, characterized by hilly terrain, low elevations, and a few mountainous regions; at its base lie younger sedimentary rocks. In a south-westerly direction from Newcastle at the mouth of the Tyne River to Exeter at the mouth of the Ex River in south Devon, the border between High and Low Britain runs. This boundary is not everywhere clearly defined, and often the transitions between High and Low Britain are smoothed out.

Climate
The climate of Great Britain, due to the influence of the Gulf Stream, is temperate oceanic, humid, with mild winters and cool summers, strong winds and fogs. Thanks to the North Atlantic Current and warm winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean, the UK generally has mild winters.

But these same winds explain cloudy weather, frequent rains and fogs. The average annual temperature is around 11°C in the south and around 9°C in the northeast. The average July temperature in London is about 18°C, the average January temperature is about 4.5°C. The average annual rainfall (the heaviest rains come in October) is about 760 mm. Scotland is the coldest region in the UK, although the climate is generally quite mild. The average January temperature is about 3°C, and snow often falls in the mountains in the north. The average July temperature is about 15 ° C. The highest amount of precipitation falls in the west of the Highlands region (about 3810 mm per year), the least - in some eastern regions (about 635 mm per year).

Water resources
The UK is rich in water resources. Almost throughout the country, except for some southeastern regions, the amount of precipitation exceeds evaporation, and therefore a dense network of full-flowing rivers is developed. The largest of them are the Severn, which has a length of 354 km, and the Thames - 338 km, the basins of which border on each other.

The Thames is of the greatest importance to the UK economy. 1/5 of the total population of the country lives in its basin.

There are many rivers, they are short, but close to each other and, with low watersheds, are easily connected by canals, which at one time made it possible to create a dense network of waterways based on them, which were widely used before the development of railway transport, and now - more for sports purposes. The importance of the estuaries of rivers that go far into the land is very great, as well as the overall large indentation of the coastline. This allowed many ports to be created; some have grown into large industrial hubs. Good accessibility for maritime transport is especially important for an island country.

Soils
Podzolic and brown forest soils are widespread in the soil cover of the country, and humus-calcareous soils are found on limestones. The mechanical composition is dominated by clay and loamy soils. Due to the abundance of rainfall, the soils are highly leached. In general, the soils of Great Britain have been cultivated for a long time and give high yields.

Podzolized brown forest soils have been preserved under natural and perennial pastures on marshy coastal lowlands - marches - and in some other flat areas of England that have undergone reclamation. Fertile peaty alluvial soils are common in the drained marine lowlands of Fenland, as well as in the valley of the Trent River.

Vegetable world
The vegetation of England is quite poor, forests occupy less than 10% of the region. Basically, they are preserved along the river valleys and in the lower parts of the mountain slopes. In Scotland, forests are more common, although moorland dominates the region. Oak and coniferous trees (spruce, pine and larch) grow mainly in the forests in the south and east of the Highlands. In the lower mountains of England and Wales
grow oak, elm, hornbeam, beech and ash. The upper limit of the forest reaches 500-600 m, and broad-leaved forests usually do not rise above 400 m.

Animal world
Many large mammals, such as the bear, wild boar and Irish red deer, have long been extirpated in the British Isles as a result of intense hunting, and the wolf has been extirpated as a pest. Now there are only 56 species of mammals left. Red deer - the largest representative of mammals - lives in the uplands of Cornwall, in the Scottish Highlands. There are quite a few roe deer that are found north of Yorkshire and in the south of England. Wild goats live in mountainous areas. Among small mammals there are hare, rabbit, marten, otter, wild cat, a large number of partridges and wild ducks.

Of the small animals, ermine and weasel are numerous, ferrets are found in Wales, and wild European cats and American martens are found in the mountains of Scotland.

Minerals
The UK has significant mineral reserves. It is especially rich in coal, the total reserves of which are 189 billion tons, including 45 billion tons of recoverable coal. Its deposits are found in all economic regions of the country, except for three southern and Northern Ireland. The largest are concentrated in three coal basins: Yorkshire and Northumberland-Durham, located in the foothills of the Pennines, and South Wales, on the southern slope of the Welsh mountains. Many coal basins came close to the sea coast, and coal could be easily transported. At present, the role of coal is no longer so great, its extraction has decreased, the best seams have been worked out, and the use of deep mines has become unprofitable.