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Word formation in English. Adjectives and adverbs. Adjectives and Adverbs Types of adjectives by education

In English there are many word beginnings (prefixes) and word endings (suffixes) that can be added to a word to change its meaning or its word class. The most common ones are shown here, with examples of how they are used in the process of word formation. Many more are listed in the dictionary.

Verb formation

The endings -ize and -ify can be added to many nouns and adjectives to form verbs, like this:

Adjective/ noun + -ize, -ify = verb

ADJECTIVE		VERB
	size

Ex. They want to make the factory more modern. They want to modernsize the factory.

His behavior was stupid. He behaved stupidly .

Noun formation

The endings -er,-ment,-ation can be added to many verbs to form nouns.

verb+ -er,-ment,–ation = noun

VERB	- er, ment,ation		NOUN
		- er

John drives a bus. He is a bus driver .

Children develop very quickly. Their development is very quick.

The doctor examined me carefully. He gave me a careful examination .

The endings -ity and -ness can be added to many adjectives to form nouns, like this:

Adjective + -ity, -ness = noun

ADJECTIVE	-ity,-ness	NOUN

Don't be so cruel.

I hate cruelty .

It was very dark. The darkness made it impossible to see.

Adjective formation

The endings -y, -ic, -ical, -ful, -less can be added to many nouns to form adjectives.

Noun + - y, - ic, - ical, - ful, - less = adjective

This book contains exercises on grammar. It containsical grammar

exercises. His broken leg caused him a lot of pain His broken leg caused him a lot offul .

. His broken leg caused him a lot of It was very His broken leg caused him a lot ofless .

NOUN	The operation didn't cause her any		ADJECTIVE

		- ic, - ical

. It was-y, -ic, -ical,

The ending - It was = able

VERB

ADJECTIVE

can be added to many verbs to form adjectives.

Verb + - adjective w You canIt was .

wash

this coat. It's

wash

(English adjectives include big, old, and tired, among many others.) Those that do not, typically use words of another part of speech, often verbs, to serve the same semantic function; for example, such a language might have a verb that means “to be big”, and would use a construction analogous to “big-being house” to express what English expresses as “big house.” Even in languages that do have adjectives, one language’s adjective might not be another’s; for example, while English uses “to be hungry” (hungry being an adjective), French uses “avoir fair” (literally “to have hunger”), and where Hebrew uses the adjective “” (za qq, roughly “in need of "), English uses the verb “to need.” In most languages with adjectives, they form an open class of words; that is, it is relatively common for new adjectives to be formed via such processes as derivation Theoretical part Adjectives. Adjectives are the third major class of words in English, after nouns and verbs. Adjectives are words expressing properties of objects (e.g. large, blue, simple, clever, economic, progressive, productive, etc) and, hence, qualifying nouns.

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English words are about 14,000 years old that originate from pr-Indo-European language group called “Nostratic” which means “Our language”. Words...the game of chess. [The Middle Ages | English Words | Numbers and Measurement ] The verb "cleave" has two opposite meanings. It can...mean to adhere or to separate. The words "beef" and...

Adjectives in English do not change for number or case. The only grammatical category they have is the degrees of comparison. They are also characterized by functions in the sentence Degrees of Comparison. There are three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative and superlative.

The positive form is the plain stem of an adjective (e.g. heavy, slow, straight, etc).

The comparative states that one thing has more of the quality named by the adjective than some other thing (e.g.

Henry is taller than John).

The superlative states that the thing has the greatest degree of the quality among the things being considered (e. g. Henry is the tallest boy in the class) Most one-syllable adjectives, and most two-syllable adjectives ending in -y, -ow, - er, or consonant +-le, with loud stress on the first syllable and weak stress on the second, form their comparative and superlative by the addition of the suffixes -er and -est.

Positive Comparative Superlative clevecleverecleverest narrow narrow narrowest pretty prettieprettiest simplsimplesimplest Adjectives derived by prefixes from those that use -er/-est also use these suffixes, even though the addition of prefixes makes them longer that two syllables: unhappy – unhappier -unhappiest. All adjectives other than those enumerated above form their comparative by using the intensifier more and their superlative by using the intensifier the most. Positive Comparative Superlative interesting more interesting the most interesting generous more generous the most generous personal more personal the most personal In a very few cases, English permits a choice between the two devices: commoner / more common, commonest / the most common. Ordinary, when one form is prescribed by the rules, the other is forbidden.

A few adjectives have irregular forms for the degrees of comparison. They are: good – better – the best bad – worse – the worst far – farther – the farthest (for distance) – further – the furthest (for time and distance) near – nearer – the nearest (for distance) – next (for order) late – later – the latest (for time) – last (for order) old – older – the oldest (for age) – elder – the eldest (for seniority rather the age; used only attributively) There are some adjectives that, on account of their meaning, do not admit of comparison at all, e. g. perfect, unique, full, empty, square, round, wooden, daily, upper, major, outer, whole, only and some others.

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Doctrine of Freedom of Expression in International Law: Comparative Jurisprudence of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ...’s freedom of expression to achieve a high degree of comparability with the US. VII. References ... This paper seeks to make a comparison on freedom of expression between the ... enjoyment by its citizens V. Analysis on the Degree of Comparability It could be cited that RSA ...

There are sentence patterns in which comparison is expressed: a) comparison of equality (as… as) e. g. The boy was as shy as a monkey. b) comparison of inequality (not so… as, not as…

as) e. g. His skin was not so bronzed as a Tahiti native’s. c) comparison of superiority (…

Er than, … -est of (in, ever) e. g. He looked younger than his years, much younger than Sheila or me. d) comparison of inferiority (less… than) e.

g. John is less musical than his sister. e) comparison of parallel increase or decrease (the… the, … -er as) e.

g. The longer I think of his proposal the less I like it. There are set phrases which contain the comparative or the superlative degree of an adjective: a) a change for the better (for the worst) – () b) none the less – c) so much the better (the worst) – () d) to be the worst for – -, e) no (none the) worse for – ()… f) if the worst comes to the worst – g) to go from bad to worse – h) as best -, i) at (the) bes Substantivization of Adjectives. Sometimes adjectives become substantivized. In this case they have the functions of nouns in the sentence and are always preceded by the definite article.

Substantivized adjectives may have two meanings: 1) They may indicate a class of persons in a general sense (e.g. the poor = poor people, the dead = dead people, etc.) Such adjectives are plural in meaning and take a plural verb. e. g.

The old receive pensions. If we wish to denote a single person we must add a noun. e. g. The old man receives a pension. If we wish to refer to a particular group of persons (not the whole class), it is aslo necessary to add a noun.

e. g. The young are usually intolerant. Some adjectives denoting nationalities (e.g.

English, French, Dutch) are used in the same way. e. g. The English are great lovers of tea. 2) Substantivized adjectives may also indicate an abstract notion. Then they are singular in meaning and take a singular verb.

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e. g. The good in him over weighs the bad. Syntactic Functions of Adjectives. Adjectives may serve in the sentence as: 1) an attribute e.

g. Do you see the small green boat, which has such an odd shape Adjectives used as attributes usually immediately precede the noun. Normally there is no pause between the adjective and the noun. Such attributes are called close attributes. However, an adjective placed in pre-position to the noun may be separated from it by a pause. Then it becomes a loose attribute.

e. g. Clever and tactful, George listened to my story with deep concern. Yet loose attributes are more often found in post-position to the noun.

e. g. My father, happy and tired, kissed me good-night. 2) a predicative 3) part of a compound verbal predicate 4) an objective predicative 5) a subjective predicative It should be noted that most adjectives can be used both attributively and predicatively, but some, among them those beginning with a-, can be used only as predicative (e. g. afraid, asleep, along, alive, awake, ashamed and also content, sorry, well, ill, due, etc.

) A few adjectives can be used only as attributes (e. g. outer, major, minor, only, whole, former, latter and some others) Position of Adjectives. 1 Most adjectives can be used in a noun group, after determiners and numbers if there are any, in front of the noun. e.

g. He had a beautiful smile. 2 Most adjectives can also be used after a link verb such as ‘be’, ‘become’, or ‘feel’. e. g.

I'm cold. 3. Some adjectives are normally used only after a link verb. afraid asleep ready due unable alive aware glad sorry well alone content ill sure 4. Some adjectives are normally used only in front of a noun. eastern existing neighboring northern atomic indoor occasional southern countless introductory outdoor western digital maximum 5.

When we use an adjective to emphasize a strong feeling or opinion, it always comes in front of a noun. absolute outright pure true complete perfect real utter entire positive total 6. Some adjectives that describe size or age can come after a noun group consisting of a number or determiner and a noun that indicates the unit of measurement. deep long tall wide high old thick 7. A few adjectives are used alone after a noun. designate elect galore incarnate 8.

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An adjective clause functions as an adjective (modifies a noun or pronoun); an adverb clause functions as an adverb (describes a verb, adjective or other adverb); a noun clause ... front. Adjective clause * An adjective clause functions as an adjective (modifies a noun or pronoun); * An adjectival clause (adjective clause or relative clause) does the work of an adjective and describes a noun ...

A few adjectives have a different meaning depending on whether they come in front of or after a noun. involved present properly responsible Order concerned of Adjectives. 1. We often want to add more information to a noun than you can with one adjective, so we need to use two or more adjectives. In theory, we can use the adjectives in any order, depending on the quality you want to emphasize.

In practice, however, there is a normal order. When we use two or more adjectives in front of a noun, we usually put an adjective that expresses our opinion in front of an adjective that just describes something. e. g. You live in a nice big house. 2.

When we use more than one adjective to express our opinion, an adjective with a more general meaning such as 'good', 'bad', 'nice', or 'lovely' usually comes before an adjective with a more specific meaning such as ' comfortable', 'clean', or 'dirty'. e. g. I sat in a lovely comfortable armchair in the corner. 3. We can use adjectives to describe various qualities of people or things.

For example, we might want to indicate their size, their shape, or the country they come from. Descriptive adjectives belong to six main types, but we are unlikely ever to use all six types in the same noun group. If we did, we would normally put them in the following order: size shape age color nationality material This means that if we want to use an ‘age’ adjective and a ‘nationality’ adjective, we put the ‘age’ adjective first. We met some young Chinese girls. Similarly, a ‘shape’ adjective normally comes before a ‘colour’ adjective. e.

g. He had round black eyes. Other combinations of adjectives follow the same order. Note that ‘material’ means any substance, not only cloth. e. g.

There was a large round wooden table in the room. The man was carrying a small black plastic bag. 4. We usually put comparative and superlative adjectives in front of other adjectives.

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Is implied. o Subordinate clause as an adjective clause. o The announcers claimed ... independent occurred. o Subordinate clause as a noun clause. o Many prominent Democrats ... Compound-Complex SentenceA coordinating conjunction sometimes links two complex sentences, or one ... although it has a number of verbs, it has only one subject. ... one clause dependent by inserting a dependent marker word in front of it ...

e. g. Some of the better English actors have gone to live in Hollywood. 5.

When we use a noun in front of another noun, we never put adjectives between them. We put any adjectives in front of the first noun. e. g.

He works in the French film industry. 6. When we use two adjectives as the complement of a link verb, we use a conjunction such as ‘and’ to link them. With three or more adjectives, we link the last two with a conjunction, and put commas after the others. e. g.

The day was hot and dusty Adjectives with prepositions. 1. When we use an adjective after a link verb, we can often use the adjective on its own or followed by a prepositional phrase. e.

g. He was afraid. 2. Some adjectives cannot be used alone after a link verb.

If they are followed by a prepositional phrase, it must have a particular preposition: aware of unaware of fond of accustomed to unaccustomed to used to e. g. I’ve always been terribly fond of you. 3.

Some adjectives can be used alone, or followed by a particular preposition. used alone, or with ‘of ‘ to specify the cause of a feeling afraid critical jealous suspicious ashamed envious proud terrified convinced frightened scared tired They may feel jealous of your success. used alone, or with ‘of ‘ to specify the person who has a quality brave good polite thoughtful careless intelligent sensible unkind clever kind silly unreasonable generous nice stupid wrong That was clever of you! used alone or with ‘to’, usually referring to: similarity: close equal identical related similamarriage: married engaged loyalty: dedicated devoted loyal rank: junior senior e. g. My problems are very similar to yours. used alone, or followed by ‘with’ to specify the cause of a feeling bored displeased impatient pleased content dissatisfied impressed satisfied e.

g. I could never be bored with football. used alone, or with ‘for’ to specify the person or thing that quality relates to common essential possible unusual difficult important usual unnecessary easy necessary. g.

It’s difficult for young people on their own. 4. Some adjectives can be used alone, or used with different prepositions. used alone, with an impersonal subject and ‘of ‘ and the subject of the action, or with a personal subject and ‘to’ and the object of the action cruel good nasty rude friendly kind nice unfriendly generous mean polite unkind e. g. It was rude of him to leave so suddenly Adjectives with ‘to’-infinitive or ‘that’-clauses 1.

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Texts we find a variety of word phrases. OE noun patterns, adjective and verb patterns had certain specific features which are important to ... between the classes were as follows: in Class I the Infinitive ended in -an, rarely -ian (-ian occurs after [r]); the ... order is found in many subordinate and in some coordinate clauses: the clause begins with the subject following the connective, and ends ...

After link verbs, we often use adjectives that describe how someone feels about an action or situation. With some adjectives, we can add a ‘to’-infinitive clause or a ‘that’-clause to say what the action or situation is. afraid disappointed happy sad anxious frightened pleased surprised ashamed glad proud unhappy If the subject is the same in both clauses, we usually use a ‘to’- infinitive clause. If the subject is different, we must use a ‘that’- clause. e. g.

I was happy to see them again. We often use a ‘to’-infinitive clause when talking about future time in relation to the main clause. e. g. I am afraid to go home.

We often use a ‘that’-clause when talking about present or past time in relation to the main clause. e. g. He was anxious that the passport was missing. 2. We often use ‘sorry’ with a ‘that’-clause.

Note that ‘that’ is often omitted. e. g. I’m very sorry that I can’t join you. 3.

Some adjectives are not usually used alone, but have a ‘to’-infinitive clause after them to say what action or situation the adjective relates to. able due likely unlikely apt inclined prepared unwilling bound liable ready willing e. g. They were unable to help her. 4.

When we want to express an opinion about someone or something, we often use an adjective followed by a ‘to’-infinitive clause. difficult easy impossible possible right wrong. g. She had been easy to deceive.

5. With some adjectives, we use a ‘that’-clause to express an opinion about someone or something. awful extraordinary important sad bad funny interesting true essential good obvious e. g. I was sad that people had reacted in this way.

6. We can also use adjectives with ‘to’-infinitive clauses after ‘it’ as the impersonal subject. We use the preposition ‘of ‘ or ‘for’ to indicate the person or thing that the adjective relates to. e.

g. It was easy to find the path Adjectives ending in ‘-ing’ or ‘-ed’ We use many ‘-ing’ adjectives to describe the effect that something has on our feelings, or on the feelings of people in general. For example, if we talk about ‘a surprising number’, we mean that the number surprises us. alarming charming embarrassing surprising amazing confusing exciting terrifying annoying convincing frightening tiring astonishing depressing interesting welcoming boring disappointing shocking worrying e.

g. He lives in a charming house just outside the town. We use some ‘-ing’ adjectives to describe something that continues over a period of time. aging decreasing existing living booming dying increasing remaining e. g. Britain is an aging society.

Many ‘-ed’ adjectives describe people’s feelings. They have the same form as the past participle of a transitive verb and have a passive meaning. For example, ‘a frightened person’ is a person who has been frightened by something. alarmed delighted frightened surprised amused depressed interested tired astonished disappointed satisfied troubled bored excited shocked worried e.

g. She looks alarmed about something. 4. Like other adjectives, ‘-ing’ and ‘-ed’ adjectives can be: used in front of a noun They still show amazing loyalty to their parents.

5. A small number of ‘-ed’ adjectives are normally only used after link verbs such as ‘be’, ‘become’, or ‘feel’. They are related to transitive verbs, and are often followed by a prepositional phrase, a ‘to’-infinitive clause, or a ‘that’-clause. convinced interested prepared tired delighted involved scared touched finished pleased thrilled worried e. g. The Brazilians are pleased with the results Practical par Degrees of Comparison.

There are sentence patterns in which comparison is expressed: a) comparison of equality (as… as) After his bathe, the inspector was as fresh as a fish. When he had left Paris, it was as cold as in winter there. b) comparison of inequality (not so…

as, not as… as) The sun is not so hot today as I thought it would be. You are not as nice as people think. c) comparison of superiority (… -er than, … -est of (in, ever) To my mind the most interesting thing in art is the personality of the artist.

My mother was the proudest of women, and she was vain, but in the end she had an eye for truth. It’s the biggest risk I’ve ever had to take. d) comparison of inferiority (less... than) He had the consolidation of noting that his friend was less sluggish than before. e) comparison of parallel increase or decrease (the… the, …

Er as) The sooner this is done, the better. He became more cautious as he grew older. There are set phrases which contain the comparative or the superlative degree of an adjective: a) e. g. There seem to be a change for the better in your uncle. He had a very hearty dinner yesterday.

b) e. g. It did not take him long to make up his mind. None the less she showed her scorn for his hesitation. c) e. g.

If he will help us, so much the better. If he doesn’t work, so much the worst for him. d) e. g. He is rather the worst for drink.

e) e. g. You”ll be no worse for having her to help you. You are none the worse for the experience.

f) e. g. If the worst comes to the worst, I can always go back home to my parents. g) e. g. Thinks went from bad to worse in the family.

h) e. g. He made a living as best he could. i) e. g. She cannot get away from her home for long.

At (the) best she can stay with us for two days. Substantivization of Adjectives. 1) They may indicate a class of persons in a general sense (e. g. the poor = poor people, the dead = dead people, etc.) Such adjectives are plural in meaning and take a plural verb.

The young are always romantic, aren’t they The blind are taught trades in special schools. 2) Substantivized adjectives may also indicate an abstract notion. Then they are singular in meaning and take a singular verb. My mother never lost her taste for extravagant. Syntactic Functions of Adjectives. 1) an attribute The lights of the farm blazed out in the windy darkness.

2) a predicative He looked mature, sober and calm. 3) part of a compound verbal predicate She lay motionless, as if she were asleep. 4) an objective predicative She wore her hair short. 5) a subjective predicative Her hair was dyed blonde.

Position of Adjectives. 1 Most adjectives can be used in a noun group, after determiners and numbers if there are any, in front of the noun. She bought a loaf of white bread. There was no clear evidence. 2 Most adjectives can also be used after a link verb such as ‘be’, ‘become’, or ‘feel’. I felt angry.

Nobody seemed amused. 3. Some adjectives are normally used only after a link verb. For example, we can say ‘She was glad’, but you do not talk about ‘a glad woman’. I wanted to be alone.

We were getting ready for bed. I'm not quite sure. He didn’t know whether to feel glad or sorry. 4. Some adjectives are normally used only in front of a noun. For example, we talk about ‘an atomic bomb’, but we do not say ‘The bomb was atomic’.

He sent countless letters to the newspapers. This book includes a good introductory chapter on forests. 5. When we use an adjective to emphasize a strong feeling or opinion, it always comes in front of a noun. Some of it was absolute rubbish.

He made me feel like a complete idiot. 6. Some adjectives that describe size or age can come after a noun group consisting of a number or determiner and a noun that indicates the unit of measurement. He was about six feet tall. The water was several meters deep. The baby is nine months old.

Note that you do not say ‘two pounds heavy’, you say ‘two pounds in weight’. 7. A few adjectives are used alone after a noun. There are empty houses galore.

8. A few adjectives have a different meaning depending on whether they come in front of or after a noun. For example, ‘the concerned mother’ means a mother who is worried, but ‘the mother concerned’ means the mother who has been mentioned. It’s one of those incredibly involved stories. The people involved are all doctors. I'm worried about the present situation.

Of the 18 people present, I knew only one. Her parents were trying to act in a responsible manner. We do not know the person responsible for his death. Order of Adjectives. 1.

When we use two or more adjectives in front of a noun, we usually put an adjective that expresses our opinion in front of an adjective that just describes something. He is a naughty little boy. She was wearing a beautiful pink suit. 2. When we use more than one adjective to express our opinion, an adjective with a more general meaning such as 'good', 'bad', 'nice', or 'lovely' usually comes before an adjective with a more specific meaning such as 'comfortable', 'clean', or 'dirty'. He put on a nice clean shirt.

It was a horrible dirty room. 3. We can use adjectives to describe various qualities of people or things. For example, we might want to indicate their size, their shape, or the country they come from. 4. We usually put comparative and superlative adjectives in front of other adjectives.

These are the highest monthly figures on record. 5. When we use a noun in front of another noun, we never put adjectives between them. We put any adjectives in front of the first noun. He receives a large weekly cash payment. 6.

When we use two adjectives as the complement of a link verb, we use a conjunction such as ‘and’ to link them. With three or more adjectives, we link the last two with a conjunction, and put commas after the others. The room was large but square. The house was old, damp and smelly. We felt hot, tired and thirsty. Adjectives with prepositions.

1. When we use an adjective after a link verb, we can often use the adjective on its own or followed by a prepositional phrase. He was afraid of his enemies. 2. Some adjectives cannot be used alone after a link verb.

If they are followed by a prepositional phrase, it must have a particular preposition: He is unaccustomed to the heat. 3. Some adjectives can be used alone, or followed by a particular preposition. used alone, or with ‘of ‘ to specify the cause of a feeling I was terrified of her. 4.

Some adjectives can be used alone, or used with different prepositions. She was rude to him for no reason Adjectives with ‘to’-infinitive or ‘that’-clauses 1. After link verbs, we often use adjectives that describe how someone feels about an action or situation. With some adjectives, we can add a ‘to’-infinitive clause or a ‘that’-clause to say what the action or situation is. He was happy that they were coming to the party. 2.

We often use ‘sorry’ with a ‘that’-clause. Note that ‘that’ is often omitted. I’m sorry I’m so late. 3. Some adjectives are not usually used alone, but have a ‘to’-infinitive clause after them to say what action or situation the adjective relates to. They were not likely to forget it.

I am willing to try. I’m prepared to say I was wrong. 4. When we want to express an opinion about someone or something, we often use an adjective followed by a ‘to’-infinitive clause. The windows will be almost impossible to open. Am I wrong to stay here 5.

With some adjectives, we use a ‘that’-clause to express an opinion about someone or something... It is extraordinary that we should ever have met! 6. We can also use adjectives with ‘to’-infinitive clauses after ‘it’ as the impersonal subject. We use the preposition ‘of ‘ or ‘for’ to indicate the person or thing that the adjective relates to. It was good of John to help me. It was difficult for her to find a job.

Adjectives ending in ‘-ing’ or ‘-ed’ We use many ‘-ing’ adjectives to describe the effect that something has on our feelings, or on the feelings of people in general. For example, if we talk about ‘a surprising number’, we mean that the number surprises us. She always has a warm welcoming smile. We use some ‘-ing’ adjectives to describe something that continues over a period of time. Increasing prices are making food very expensive. Many ‘-ed’ adjectives describe people’s feelings.

They have the same form as the past participle of a transitive verb and have a passive meaning. For example, ‘a frightened person’ is a person who has been frightened by something. A bored student complained to his teacher. She had big blue frightened eyes. 4. Like other adjectives, ‘-ing’ and ‘-ed’ adjectives can be: used in front of a noun This is the most terrifying tale ever written.

I was thanked by the satisfied customer. The worried authorities canceled the match. used after link verbs It’s amazing what they can do. The present situation is terrifying. He felt satisfied with all the work he had done. My husband was worried.

She was scared that they would find her Conclusion It should be noted that the meaning of unrestricted superiority is in- built in the superlative degree as such, though in practice this form is used in collocations imposing certain restrictions on the effected comparison; Thus, the form in question may be used to signify restricted superiority, namely, in cases where a limited number of referents are compared. Cf. : Johnny was the strongest boy in the company. Some linguists approach the number of the degrees of comparison as problematic on the grounds that the basic form of the adjective does not express any comparison by itself and therefore should be excluded from the category. This exclusion would reduce the category to two members only, i. e.

the comparative and superlative degrees. However, the oppositional interpretation of grammatical categories underlying our considerations does not admit of such an exclusion; on the contrary, the non-expression of superiority by the basic form is understood in the oppositional presentation of comparison as a pre-requisite for the expression of the category as such. In this expression of the category the basic form is the unmarked member, not distinguished by any comparison suffix or comparison auxiliary, while the superiority forms (i.e. the comparative and superlative) are the marked members, distinguished by the comparison suffixes or comparison auxiliaries.

On the other hand, due to the tendency of colloquial speech to contrastive variation, such extreme qualifiers can sometimes be modified by intensifying elements. Thus, “the final decision” becomes “a very final decision”; “the ultimate rejection” turns into “rather an ultimate rejection”; “the crucial role” is made into “quite a crucial role”, etc. As a result of this kind of modification, the highest grade evaluative force of these words is not strengthened, but, on the contrary, weakened; the outwardly extreme qualifiers become degraded extreme qualifiers, even in this status similar to the regular category l superlatives degraded in their elative use. List 1.

Dixon, R. M. W. (1977).

Where have all the adjectives gone Studies in Language, 1, 19-80. 2.

Dixon, R. M. W.; R.

E. Asher (Editor) (1993).

The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (1st ed.).

Pergamon Press Inc. pp. 29-35. ISBN 0080359434.

Dixon, R. M. W. (1999).

In K. Brown & T. Miller (Eds.), Concise encyclopedia of grammatical categories (pp. 1-8).

Amsterdam: Elsevier.

ISBN 0-08-043164-X. Warren, Beatrice. (1984).

Classifying adjectives. Gothenburg studies in English (No. 56).

Gteborg: Acta Universitat is Gothoburgensis. ISBN 91-7346-133-4. Wierzbicka, Anna. (1986).

What’s in a noun (or: How do nouns differ in meaning from adjectives).

Studies in Language, 10, 353-389..

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1. the adjective– this is a part of speech that denotes an attribute of an object and answers a question what? - Which? For example: beautiful – beautiful, interesting – interesting, warm – warm etc. Adjectives in English, unlike the Russian language, do not change either by gender, or by number, or by case.

Examples: My cousin is a fine boy. - My cousin good boy.
Nina is a fine friend. – Nina good girlfriend.
They spend a few fine days at the seaside. - They spend several wonderful (good) days on the coast.

2. By meaning, adjectives are divided into quality And relative.
Qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison and indicate characteristics that distinguish objects:

in shape: oval - oval, triangular - triangular;

by size: small - small, large - huge, tiny - tiny;

by property: solid – hard, soft – soft;

by color: red – red, green – green;

to taste: bitter - bitter, sour - sour;

by weight: light – light, heavy – heavy;

Relative adjectives do not have a degree of comparison and are not used with an adverb very – very. They mean:

the material from which the item is made: silk - silk, glass - glass, concrete - concrete;

place of action: urban - urban, forest - forest;

area of knowledge: historical - historical, geographical - geographical;

era: prehistoric – prehistoric;

3. There are adjectives simple, derivatives And complex.

TO simple adjectives These are adjectives that have neither prefixes nor suffixes: old - old, tall - tall, white – white etc.
TO derived adjectives These include adjectives that contain suffixes or prefixes or both at the same time: heav y- heavy, in different – indifferent, un comfort It was- uncomfortable etc.

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Difficult Suffixes of Nouns and Adjectives

General information on the use of suffixes of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs is given in Brief Overview of Grammar in the section Grammar. The rules of adding suffixes are described in Adding Suffixes in the section Writing.

The material below offers some recommendations for choosing among several similar suffixes. There are several noun suffixes and adjective suffixes that have the same (or almost the same) pronunciation but are spelled differently. The following suffixes are described in this material: ance, ancy, ence, ency; ant, ent; acy, sy; ary, ory, ery; able, ible; er, or, ar.

In most cases, only one variant of Russian translation is given for the words in the lists below. Use the dictionary to understand their meanings better.

Suffixes ANCE, ANCY, ENCE, ENCY

These suffixes are noun-forming suffixes. Nouns with these suffixes were derived from Latin verbs in which the letters A or E in the suffix meant different types of verb conjugation. There are no verb conjugations in English, and choosing between the suffixes ANCE or ENCE may present some difficulty even for native speakers of English.

There are many nouns with the suffixes ANCE, ENCE. Nouns with the suffixes ANCY, ENCY are less numerous. There are no rules that could help us to choose between ANCE and ENCE and between ANCY and ENCY. For easier memorization, arrange the words with these suffixes in two columns on a page and then look at the words attentively, say them aloud several times, and practice writing them.

Suffix ANCE

Suffix ANCY

Suffix ENCE

Suffix ENCY

Note: Two similar nouns

In a number of cases, there are two nouns formed with the help of ANCE, ANCY or ENCE, ENCY. For example: brilliance, brilliancy; instance, instance; relevance, relevance; dependence, dependence; emergence, emergency; equivalence, equivalency; inadvertence, inadvertency; lenience, leniency; residence, residency; valence, valency.

In some cases, there is no difference in meaning (lenience, leniency); in some other cases, there is a difference in meaning (emergence, emergency). Often, the variant with ANCE or ENCE in such pairs has more meanings and may include the meaning of the variant with ANCY or ENCY. Consult the dictionary in such cases.

Suffixes ANT, ENT

Here we have two helpful rules for choosing ANT or ENT.

If a noun has the suffix ANCE or ANCY, its derivative adjectives and nouns have the suffix ANT (if such derivative adjectives and nouns exist, of course). Compare these examples:

If a noun has the suffix ENCE or ENCY, its derivative adjectives and nouns have the suffix ENT (if such derivative adjectives and nouns exist, of course). Compare these examples:

Unfortunately, such pairs do not exist in all cases. Arrange words ending in ANT and ENT in two columns on one page; it will help you to memorize their spelling.

Nouns with ACY, SY

There are a lot of nouns with the suffix ACY (sometimes CY), but there aren’t many nouns ending in SY, and SY is not a suffix (mostly, it is the final letter S plus the suffix Y). The best way is to arrange these nouns in two groups for comparison and to memorize the nouns with SY first.

ACY (CY) in nouns

prophecy (prophesy [‘profisai] is a verb)

SY in nouns

Suffixes ARY, ORY, ERY

The suffixes ARY and ORY function as noun-forming and adjective-forming suffixes, while the suffix ERY is found in nouns.

Suffix ARY

Suffix ORY

Suffix ERY

Suffixes ABLE, IBLE

The suffixes ABLE and IBLE form adjectives. These suffixes present a big problem for language learners. General guidelines for choosing between ABLE and IBLE are given below. (Quite a few exceptions exist.) In some cases these guidelines don’t help, and the best way is to memorize the spelling of these words by arranging them in two columns for comparison. There are more adjectives with ABLE than with IBLE.

ATION in nouns, ABLE in adjectives

If there is a noun with the suffix ATION derived from the same root, the suffix ABLE is generally used in the adjective.

BUT: sensation – sensible

ION in nouns, IBLE in adjectives

If there is a noun with the suffix ION derived from the same root, the suffix IBLE is generally used in the adjective.

collection – collectable, collectible

connection – connectible, connectable

ABLE after complete root words

If the root is a complete word, the suffix ABLE is usually added to the root. If the word ends in the mute letter E, the letter E is dropped before adding ABLE.

detect – detectable, detectable

Note: In the case of words ending in CE [s] and GE [j], the final mute letter E is not dropped before adding ABLE.

Words ending in DGE [j] generally follow the same rule. For example: knowledge – knowledgeable; abridge – abridgable, abridgeable; lodge – lodgeable.

IBLE after complete root words

Some complete words add the suffix IBLE to the root. The final mute letter E is dropped before adding IBLE.

resist – resistible – irresistible

Note: Some roots ending in CE [s] and G/GE [j] add the suffix IBLE. The final mute letter E is dropped before adding IBLE.

Root is not a complete word: mostly IBLE

If the root is not a complete word, mostly IBLE is added to the root. For example, compare “creditable” and “credible”: Both adjectives are formed from “credit”, but ABLE is added to the complete word “credit”, and IBLE is added to the Latin root “cred” which is not a complete word .

ABLE after I

Only ABLE can be used after the letter I.

ABLE after syllable-forming Y

Only ABLE can be added to the word that ends in syllable-forming Y. The letter Y is changed to I before adding ABLE.

BUT: dry – dryable

ABLE after Y that does not form a syllable

Only ABLE is added to Y that does not form a syllable (i.e., Y stands after another vowel). In this case, Y is not changed to I before adding ABLE.

Suffixes ER, OR, AR

The suffixes ER and OR are noun-forming suffixes and generally indicate someone who does something (i.e., the doer). In many cases, words with these suffixes are names of professions, jobs, occupations, but other meanings are also quite possible, for example, “northerner, villager”. The suffix AR can function as a noun suffix and as an adjective suffix.

Not all ER, OR, AR at the end of nouns are suffixes. In some words they are final parts of words and denote process, state, result, property or quality; in some other words they do not have any particular meaning. For example: border, corner, dinner, finger, hunger; brother, father, mother, sister; error, horror, terror; caviar, dollar, sugar. Such words are also included in the lists below for the purpose of studying their spelling.

Also, the combination ER is found at the end of some verbs and has the meaning connected with frequency of action: to flatter, flicker, flutter, scatter, shiver, shudder, spatter.

There are no rules that could help us to choose among final ER, OR, AR in nouns. The best way to master their spelling is to practice writing and using them. Nouns ending in ER are more numerous than nouns ending in OR or AR. There are a lot of very common words ending in ER, OR, AR. For example:

ER in nouns

OR in nouns

AR in nouns

AR in adjectives

Note: The adjective suffix ER is used in the pair ER – EST to form the degrees of comparison of adjectives. For example: near – nearer (comparative degree) – the nearest (superlative degree).

Spelling notes: BrE and AmE

Note 1: RE and ER

The words “center, theater” and other similar words end in ER (center, theater) in American English. Compare:

BrE center – AmE center

Note 2: OUR and OR

The suffix OUR (colour, humour) has become OR (color, humor) in American English, so there are two variants of spelling for such words.

BrE color – AmE color

(A large collection of nouns and adjectives with suffixes for practicing spelling is provided in List of Nouns with Suffixes and List of Derivative Adjectives in the section Writing.)

Difficult suffixes of nouns and adjectives

General information on the use of suffixes on nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs is given in the Brief Overview of Grammar article in the Grammar section. The rules for adding suffixes are described in the Adding Suffixes article in the Writing section.

The material below gives some recommendations for choosing from several similar suffixes. There are several noun suffixes and adjective suffixes that have the same (or nearly the same) pronunciation but are spelled differently. The following suffixes are described in this material: ance, ancy, ence, ency; ant, ent; acy, sy; ary, ory, ery; able, ible; er, or, ar.

In most cases, only one Russian translation is given for the words in the lists below. Use a dictionary to better understand their meanings.

Suffixes ANCE, ANCY, ENCE, ENCY

These are suffixes that form nouns. Nouns with these suffixes were formed from Latin verbs, in which the letters A or E in the suffix indicated different types of verb conjugation. There are no verb conjugations in English, and choosing between the ANCE and ENCE suffixes can be difficult even for native English speakers.

There are many nouns with the suffixes ANCE, ENCE. Nouns with the suffixes ANCY, ENCY are less numerous. There are no rules that could help us choose between ANCE and ENCE and between ANCY and ENCY. To make it easier to memorize, arrange the words with these suffixes in two columns on one page and then look at the words carefully, say them out loud several times and practice writing them.

Suffix ANCE

maintenance – maintaining, preserving

significance – meaning, importance

Suffix ANCY

discrepancy – inconsistency, difference

occupancy – occupation, possession

vacancy – emptiness, vacancy

Suffix ENCE

occurrence – case, phenomenon

Suffix ENCY

currency – money circulation

emergency - critical situation

fluency - fluency (of speech)

In some cases, there are two nouns formed using the suffixes ANCE, ANCY or ENCE, ENCY. For example: brilliance, brilliancy; instance, instance; relevance, relevance; dependence, dependence; emergence, emergency; equivalence, equivalency; inadvertence, inadvertency; lenience, leniency; residence, residency; valence, valency.

In some cases there is no difference in meaning (lenience, leniency - gentleness, condescension); in some other cases there is a difference in meaning (emergence, emergency). Often, the option suffixed ANCE or ENCE in such pairs has more meaning and may include the meaning of the option suffixed ANCY or ENCY. Check the dictionary in such cases.

Suffixes ANT, ENT

Here we have two useful rules for choosing ANT or ENT.

If a noun has the suffix ANCE or ANCY, then its derived adjectives and nouns have the suffix ANT (if such derived adjectives and nouns exist, of course). Compare these examples:

help - assistant, assistant

presence – accompanying person

example, case - moment; instantaneous

relevance - relevant

importance - important, significant

tolerance – tolerant

residence – resident, inhabitant

occupation – occupant, tenant

If a noun has the suffix ENCE or ENCY, then its derived adjectives and nouns have the suffix ENT (if such derived adjectives and nouns exist, of course). Compare these examples:

intellect, mind - smart

place of residence - resident

money circulation - flow; current

fluency – fluent (about speech)

Unfortunately, such pairs do not exist in all cases. Arrange words ending in ANT and ENT in two columns on the page; this will help you remember how to spell them.

Nouns with ACY, SY

There are a lot of nouns with the suffix ACY (sometimes CY), but not many nouns that end in SY, and SY is not a suffix (it's basically a final S plus a Y suffix). The best way is to place these nouns in two groups for comparison and memorize the SY nouns first.

ACY (CY) in nouns

prophecy – prophecy (prophesy [‘profisai] – verb)

SY in nouns

controversy - dispute, disagreement

jealousy – jealousy, envy

Suffixes ARY, ORY, ERY

The suffixes ARY and ORY work as suffixes for nouns and adjectives, while the suffix ERY occurs in nouns.

Suffix ARY

momentary - instant, very short

salary - salary, salary

Suffix ORY

directory – index, directory

oratory - oratory art

Suffix ERY

machinery - machines, equipment

millinery - ladies' hats

nursery - children's room

stationery – writing paper

Suffixes ABLE, IBLE

The suffixes ABLE and IBLE form adjectives. These suffixes pose a big challenge for language learners. General guidelines for choosing between the ABLE and IBLE suffixes are given below. (There are quite a few exceptions.) In some cases, these guidelines do not help, and the best way is to remember the spelling of these words, placing them in two columns for comparison. There are more adjectives with the ABLE suffix than with the IBLE suffix.

ATION in nouns, ABLE in adjectives

If there is a noun with the suffix ATION derived from the same root, usually the suffix ABLE is used on the adjective.

admiration - worthy of admiration

assessment, understanding – tangible

consideration – significant, large

But: sensation – sensible (sensation – reasonable)

ION in nouns, IBLE in adjectives

If there is a noun with the suffix ION derived from the same root, usually the suffix IBLE is used on the adjective.

vision, vision - visible

collection – collected, collectible

ABLE after the root as a full word

If the root is a complete word, the suffix ABLE is usually added to the root. If a word ends in a silent E, the E is dropped before adding ABLE.

honor, merit – commendable, honorable

discoverable - discoverable

benefit, profit - profitable

respect; respect - venerable, respected

view; look – visible, visible

assess – subject to taxation

distribute, hand out – unimportant

have - available

use - suitable for use

Note: In the case of words ending in CE [s] and GE [j], the final silent E is not dropped before adding ABLE.

service - fit for use

Words ending in DGE[j] basically follow the same rule. For example: knowledge – knowledgeable; abridge – abridgable, abridgeable; lodge – lodgeable.

IBLE after the root as a full word

Some full words add the suffix IBLE to the root. The final silent E is discarded before adding IBLE.

let go - capable of being let go

bend, bend - flexible

answer, response - responsible

resist – resistible – irresistible

transform - reversible; convertible car

Note: Some roots ending in CE [s] and G/GE [j] add the suffix IBLE. The final silent E is discarded before adding IBLE.

persuade - persuadable

The root is not a full word: basically IBLE

If the root is not a full word, basically IBLE is added to the root. For example, compare "creditable" and "credible": Both adjectives are derived from "credit", but ABLE is added to the full word "credit", and IBLE is added to the Latin root "cred", which is not a full word.

auditory, sound - audible

faith, trust – trustworthy

horror - terrible, terrible

neglect – small, insignificant

horror - terrible, terrible

ABLE after I

Only ABLE can be used after the letter I.

appreciable – tangible, significant

ABLE after syllabic Y

Only ABLE can be added to a word that ends in a syllabic Y. The letter Y changes to I before adding ABLE.

classify – classifiable

deny – disputable, controversial

pity - worthy of pity

rely (on) – reliable

test – capable of being tested

But: dry – dryable (dryable)

ABLE after Y not forming a syllable

Only ABLE is added to a Y that does not form a syllable (i.e. the Y comes after another vowel). In this case, Y does not change to I before adding ABLE.

enjoy – giving pleasure

pay – payable

play – fit for play

Suffixes ER, OR, AR

The suffixes ER and OR form nouns and usually indicate someone who does something (i.e. the doer). In many cases, words with these suffixes are the names of professions, positions, occupations, but other meanings are also quite possible, for example, northerner (northerner), villager (village resident). The AR suffix can work as a noun suffix and as an adjective suffix.

Not all ER, OR, AR at the end of nouns are suffixes. In some words they are the final parts of words and denote a process, state, result, property, quality; in some other words they do not have a specific meaning. For example: border, corner, dinner, finger, hunger; brother, father, mother, sister; error, horror, terror; caviar, dollar, sugar. Such words are also included in the lists below for the purpose of learning their spelling.

Also, the combination ER occurs at the end of some verbs and has a meaning related to the frequency of the action: to flatter, flicker, flutter, scatter, shiver, shudder, spatter.

There are no rules that could help us choose between the final ER, OR, AR. The best way to master their spelling is to practice writing and using them. Nouns ending in ER are more numerous than nouns ending in OR or AR. There are many very common words ending in ER, OR, AR. For example:

ER in nouns

adviser, advisor - adviser, consultant

baby-sitter - babysitter

baker – baker, baker

brother, sister - brother, sister

customer – client, buyer

dancer - dancer, dancer

drawer - drawer

dryer, drier - dryer

explorer – explorer (of an area)

father, mother – father, mother

interpreter – translator (oral)

lawyer - lawyer, lawyer

painter - artist, painter

prisoner – prisoner, captive

reader - reader, reader

retailer - retailer

robber - robber, robber

singer - singer, singer

speaker – speaker, announcer

trainer - instructor, coach

viewer – viewer, observer

worker – worker, worker

OR in nouns

distributor – distributor; wholesaler

governor - ruler, governor

indicator – pointer, indicator

investor - investor, investor

janitor - watchman, cleaner

spectator - viewer, observer

survivor - survivor

tutor - mentor, teacher

AR in nouns

burglar – burglar (of apartments)

caviar – sturgeon caviar

AR in adjectives

particular – special, separate

peculiar – peculiar, special

polar – polar, polar

Note: The adjective suffix ER is used in the pair ER – EST to form degrees of comparison of adjectives. For example: close - closer (comparative degree) - closest (superlative degree).

Spelling Notes: BrE and AmE

Note 1: RE and ER

The words "centre, theater" and other similar words end in ER (center, theater) in American English. Compare:

BrE center – AmE center – center

caliber – caliber – caliber

fiber – fiber – fiber

liter – liter – liter

meter – meter – meter

manoeuvre - maneuver - maneuver

theater – theater – theater

Note 2: OUR and OR

The suffix OUR (colour, humour) became OR (color, humor) in American English, so there are two spellings for such words.

BrE color – AmE color – color

behavior – behavior – behavior

favor – favor – favor; courtesy

flavor - flavor - taste

honor – honor – honor

humor – humor – humor

labor – labor – labor

neighbor – neighbor – neighbor

rumour – rumor – rumor, rumors

saviour – savior – savior

tumor – tumor – tumor

vapour – vapor – steam.

(See British and American Spelling in the Writing section.)

(A large selection of nouns and adjectives with suffixes for writing practice is given in the materials List of Nouns with Suffixes and List of Derivative Adjectives in the Writing section.)

Difficult cases of similar suffixes of nouns and adjectives.

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Adjectives Adjectives in English

Adjective(Adjective) is an independent part of speech that indicates a characteristic of a person, object or concept and answers the question “ Which?" In English they do not have gender and number categories, so they do not change their form. Adjectives are most often used with nouns and in sentences they act as a modifier or a nominal part of a compound predicate.

That good-looking lady is John’s wife. “That good-looking lady is John’s wife.”

Matt's dog was really naughty. – Matt's dog was really naughty.

Types of adjectives by education

Adjectives The English language according to its form is divided into simple, derivatives And complex.

Simple adjectives (simple adjectives) consist of a single root without suffixes or prefixes.

good - good

bad - bad

happy – cheerful, happy

sad - sad

My bag is old. I want to buy a new one. - My bag is old. I want to buy a new one.

You don’t have any right to decide what is good and what is bad for me. – You have no right to decide what is good and what is bad for me.

Derivative adjectives (derivative adjectives) consist of a root with the addition of certain suffixes and prefixes. These adjectives are formed from other parts of speech, mainly verbs.

use ful – useful, suitable

derivat ive - derivative

unexpected - unexpected

illogic al - illogical

scar ing – frightening, scary

curi ous – curious

usel ess - useless

impossible - impossible

One unexpected accident has happened to me today. “An unexpected incident happened to me today.

I will prove to you that this is not impossible. – I will prove to you that it is possible (not impossible).

Compound adjectives (compound adjectives) formed by the fusion of two or more bases. Such adjectives are written with a hyphen.

well-known - well known

good-looking – good-looking

blue-eyed – blue-eyed

Russian-speaking - Russian-speaking

alcohol-free – non-alcoholic

three-day - three days

He drinks only alcohol-free beer. – He drinks only non-alcoholic beer.

Haruki Murakami is a well-known writer. – Haruki Murakami is a well-known writer.

Types of adjectives by meaning

According to the rules of the English language adjectives according to their meaning and functions they are divided into quality or descriptive adjectives, quantitative adjectives, possessive adjectives, index fingers And interrogative adjectives.

Qualitative adjectives

Quality or descriptive adjectives (descriptive adjectives or adjectives of quality) indicate a certain quality, characteristic of a living object, object, concept or action. This is the largest group of adjectives. For convenience, they are divided into quality And relative adjectives.

Qualitative adjectives express direct attributes of an object: condition, properties, color, shape, size, taste, weight. Qualitative adjectives form forms of degrees of comparison.

straight - straight

blue - blue

dangerous - dangerous

strong - strong

Kate's blue eyes can charm anyone. – Kate's blue eyes can charm anyone.

It's dangerous to touch a snake. It may be poisonous. – Touching a snake is dangerous. It may be poisonous.

Relative adjectives indicate the material, nationality, relationship to place, time, area of knowledge, interpersonal connections, and more. Usually, relative adjectives do not form degrees of comparison.

religious - religious

French - French

monthly - monthly

short-term - short-term

Mr. Jefferson prefers French cuisine to American one. - Mr. Jefferson prefers French cuisine to American cuisine.

His monthly salary is not that high. – His monthly salary is not that high.

Quantitative adjectives

Quantitative adjectives (quantitative adjectives or numeral adjectives) indicate the number of objects or concepts, their approximate or exact number. They are divided into certain, uncertain And dividing quantitative adjectives.

Definite Quantitative Adjectives (definite numeral adjectives) indicate the exact number of objects and concepts, or their order. They fully correspond to numerals.

two - two

second - second

thirty five – thirty five

thirty fifth – thirty fifth

Claire has two sisters and three brothers. – Claire has two sisters and three brothers.

Usain Bolt runs really fast so he always finishes first . – Usain Bolt runs really fast, so he always finishes first.

Indefinite quantitative adjectives (indefinite numeral adjectives) indicate an indefinite or approximate number of objects without naming it.

all – everything, everything

no – not a single one, nothing

few / a few – a few, a little

certain - certain

some – a certain amount, a little

any - any

several – several, different

sundry – various, several

many - a lot

much - a lot

most – most

little / a little – little, a little

more - more

none (of) – none

too much - too much

too many - too much

a lot of - a lot

plenty of – a lot, completely, in abundance

Jack has no patience. Jack doesn't have any patience.

There is too much of sugar in this coffee. – There is too much sugar in this coffee.

Disjunctive quantitative adjectives (distributive numeral adjectives) – adjectives that indicate one object or concept from their total number. They are mainly used with nouns singular.

neither – none, not one (of two)

either – both, both (of two)

every – everyone, everyone, everyone

each – each, everyone (separately)

other - other, others

the other – the other (of two), second, last

another - another, one more

Where is my other sock? -Where is my other sock?

You are busy now so i will come to you another day. “You’re busy right now, so I’ll come see you another day.”

Neither delegate knows how to fill in this application form. – Neither of the (two) delegates knows how to fill out this application.

Many and much

Adjectives many And much have the same meaning " a lot of" However many is used only with countable nouns, and much- with uncountables. They can be replaced by generic expressions a lot of (lots of) or plenty of(many, full, in abundance).

There are many ways to solve this problem. – There are many ways to solve this problem.
I have many cats at home. – I have a lot of cats at home.
I always put much sugar in my tea. I have a sweet tooth. – I always put a lot of sugar in my tea. I have a sweet tooth.
There wasn’t much rain yesterday, so we could play rugby. – Yesterday the rain was light, so we were able to play rugby.
There are a lot of places you can visit in Paris. – There are many places to visit in Paris.
I like spaghetti with plenty of tomato sauce. – I like spaghetti with a lot of tomato sauce.

Every and each

Every And each have the same meaning, so in most cases they replace each other. However, they also have differences in use.

Every used to indicate one item from a large number of other similar items. After every the plural form of the verb is never used. Every also used to indicate intervals of time or frequency of action. Every cannot be used alone.

Every student of this university has to hand in his paper until the end of this year. – Each of the students at this university must submit their work by the end of this year.
Every day I go to the gym. – Every day I go to the gym.
My mother calls me every ten minutes. – My mother calls me every ten minutes.

Each indicates one item from two items or from a small number of other items. Each can be used alone at the end of a sentence. It may be followed by a pronoun one(one) to avoid repetition. Each not used to indicate time intervals.

In this family each one takes turn throwing garbage. – In this family, everyone takes turns throwing out the trash.
These books are worth $100 each. – These books cost 100 dollars each.

Expression each of(each of) can indicate many objects, after it a verb in a singular form should be used, but in colloquial speech a plural form is also allowed. Each of also used with pronouns you, us And them, followed by a singular verb.

Each of the students in this group have to hand in their papers until the end of this year. – Each of the students in this group must submit their work by the end of this year.
Each of them has to apply for this job. “Each of them should apply for this job.”

Few or a few. Little or a little

There is a difference between adjectives few / a few(somewhat, a little) and little / a little(little, a little).

Few And a few are used only with countable nouns. Few has the meaning " very little», « not enough».

We have only a few eggs left. We should buy more. - We only have a few eggs left. We must buy more.
She had only a few potatoes. It wasn’t enough for a proper meal. “She had very few potatoes.” This was not enough for a full meal.

A few means " A little», « some», « few, But enough».

Don’t worry, we still have a few minutes. “Don’t worry, we still have a few minutes.”
I have a few cookies, i will give you some. – I have some cookies, I’ll give you a few.

Little And a little used for uncountable nouns. Little has the meaning " very little», « not enough».

There is little flour in this box. It's not enough for a cake. - There is not enough flour in this box. That's not enough for the pie.
He had little patience to complete this task. – He had little patience to complete this task.

A little means " A little», « some», « few, But enough».

I have a little coffee. I don't need more. – I have some coffee. I don't need more.
I need a little time to do it. Wait a bit. – I need a little time to do this. Wait please.

Demonstrative adjectives

Demonstrative adjectives (demonstrative adjectives) are demonstrative pronouns that are used not independently, but in pairs with a noun. In a sentence they are used as a modifier of nouns.

This dog is aggressive. It's better to keep away from it. – This dog is aggressive. It's better to stay away from her.
I like those flowers. Would you buy some for me? – I like those flowers. Will you buy some for me?

Possessive adjectives

Possessive adjectives(possessive adjectives) fully correspond to possessive pronouns. They are always used with a noun.

My car is broken so I will take my mother’s one. - My car is broken, so I'll take my mom's car.
His dog broke his house. – His dog broke his house.

Interrogative adjectives

Interrogative adjectives(interrogative adjectives) correspond to question words which And what, when they come immediately before nouns.

Which house on this street is yours? – Which house on this street is yours?
What music do you listen to? - What kind of music do you listen to?

Order of adjectives in a sentence

There is a special sequence in English adjectives in a sentence, which native speakers strictly adhere to.

Exist adjectives, which can only be used before a noun.

north, northern – northern
countless - countless, countless
south, southern – southern
occasional – random, rare, periodic
east, eastern – eastern
lone – lonely, withdrawn, unmarried
west, western – western
eventful - full of events
outdoor - outdoor
indoor – happening indoors
My aunt lives in the southern district. – My aunt lives in the southern region.
I prefer outdoor games. – I prefer playing outdoors.

Some adjectives are not placed before a noun. These include many common adjectives with the suffix -ed.

annoy ed – irritated
finish ed – finished
thrilled - excited, delighted
bor ed – bored
pleas ed - satisfied
ill – sick
shown - shown
glad – satisfied, joyful
I think I'm ill. - I think I'm sick.
I'm really glad to meet you again. – I'm really glad to meet you again.
Our project isn't finished. We have to hurry up! – Our project is not finished. We must hurry.

Adjectives ending in suffixes -able, -ible can come before or after nouns.

I have booked the first available flight. – I booked the first available flight.
I have booked the first flight available. – I booked the first available flight.

Adjectives are always placed after indefinite pronouns and never before them.

Yesterday I met someone beautiful. – Yesterday I met a handsome man.
Anna is trying to cook something tasty. – Anna is trying to cook something tasty.

In most cases it is used no more than three adjectives together. The adjective that is more closely related in meaning to the noun being defined is placed before it. Speaker Rating is placed before other adjectives.

I need a red wooden pencil. – I need a red wooden pencil.
Lauren bought a beautiful black silk dress. Lauren bought a beautiful black silk dress.

When adjectives more than three are used in a sentence, they are placed in in a certain order:

1. article, quantity – article, numeral, quantitative adjective (a, one.)
2. value, opinion – assessment, opinion (fancy, beautiful, difficult, horrible.)
3. size – size (little, large, enormous.)
4. quality, temperature – quality, condition, characteristic, temperature (well-tailored, cold, hot.)
5. age – age (new, old, young, ancient.)
6. shape – shape (flat, square, round, rectangular.)
7. color – color (green, blue, pink, gray.)
8. origin – origin (American, European, lunar.)
9. material – material (metal, wooden, paper.)
10. purpose – purpose, purpose (often with -ing: sleeping bag, cutting machine, table cloth.)
11. noun – noun

I’ve bought two beautiful middle-sized round red wax candles. – I bought two beautiful medium-sized round red wax candles.

Ann doesn’t want to throw away this big scratched old rectangular brown wooden chest of drawers. Ann doesn’t want to throw away this big scratched old rectangular brown wooden chest of drawers.

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Prepositions and the rules concerning their usage can be confusing to learners of English as a second language. Basically, prepositions are connecting words that join objects to other parts of sentences. Preposition choice is determined by the noun, verb, adjective or particle which precedes it. Learn noun, verb and adjective preposition combinations in English.

Noun + Preposition Combinations

English has many examples of nouns coming after prepositions…

Adjective + Preposition Combinations

English also has many instances of prepositions coming after adjectives. In many cases, the prepositions precede phrases containing nouns, as in example (a), or pronouns, as in example (b). It is also possible for the prepositions to precede an -ing verb, as in (c).

(a) I was amazed at all the improvements.

(b) We were all shocked by his behavior.

Here are some more adjectives and prepositions that are used together:

Verb + Preposition Combinations

Many English prepositions also follow verbs. Sometimes they introduce a phrase that contains a noun, as in example (a). They can also introduce a noun, as in example (b), or an -ing verb, as in example (c).

(a) I don’t know how long we can depend on his generosity. He has already done so much for us.

(b) Many of the town's residents relied on neighbors for help during the flood.

Here are some other verbs and prepositions that are used together:

Adjectives and adverbs are perhaps the most relaxing section of English grammar. Just nothing: degrees of comparison and order of adjectives, and there’s no need to talk about adverbs at all. After all, the main difficulty with them is their formation from adjectives. But it can also be easily overcome: add -ly to the adjective and you have an adverb!

But it was not there. Firstly, There are words that sound the same as an adjective and as an adverb, that is, you don’t need to add -ly to them. Secondly, There are some adverbs that have 2 forms: one is the same as the original adjective, and the second is c -ly. However, both of these forms differ in meaning.

But there are few such adverbs, so remembering them, as a rule, is not difficult. So, adjectives that do not need to be changed in any way to make an adverb from them (the asterisk indicates those adjectives to which you can add -ly, but the resulting adverb will sound more formal than without - ly). By the way, you may notice that in most cases you used these adverbs with -ly:

Best- best/better
Better- better (adjective), better (adverb)
Big- big, much
Cheap*- dear, dear
Clean*- clean, pure
Clear*- clear/clear
Close* - close, close
Cold- cold, cold
Daily- daily, every day. (In general, all adjectives ending in -ly, have the same adverb form. After all, the second -ly you can't add more!)
Dead- dead, tightly
Dear* - dear, expensive
Deep- deep, deeply
Direct- straight, straight
Dirty- dirty, dirty
Early- early, early
Easy- light, easy
Extra- additional, additionally
Far- distant, far away
Fast- fast, quickly
Fine*- good, good
Free- free, free
Further- further, in the future
Hard- heavy, hard
High- tall, high
Hourly- hourly, hourly
Inside- internal, inside
Kindly- good-natured, good-natured
Last- last, later than everyone else
Late- late, late
Long- long, longest
Loud* - loud, loud
Low- low, low
Monthly- monthly, monthly
Past- past, in the past
Quick*- fast, quickly
Quiet*- quiet, quiet
Right- correct, correct
Slow* - slow, slowly
Straight- straight, straight
Sure- confident, confident
Thin*- thin, subtle
Thick- thick, thick
Tight- tight, tight
Weekly- weekly, weekly
Well- good, good
Wide- wide, widely
Wrong- wrong, wrong
Yearly- annual, annually

And now about adverbs with two forms (with the suffix -ly and without it) and with differences in meaning:

Table. English adverbs starting with -ly

WITHOUT -LY	WITH -LY
Deep- deep	Deeply= greatly
Direct- directly	Directly- immediately, immediately
Easy= slowly	Easily= easy
Free- for free	Freely- free
Full- exactly, very much	Fully- fully
Hard- hard	Hardly- hardly
High- high	Highly- very, very
Last- after all	Lastly- in the end
Late- late	Lately- recently
Near- close	Nearly- almost
Pretty- enough, practically, enough	Prettily- Beautiful
Short- suddenly, suddenly	Shortly- soon, soon
Sure- exactly, obviously	Surely- confident
Wide- fully	Widely- widely
Wrong- wrong	Wrongly- not fair

As a bonus, we offer you 15 English adverbs that everyone should know!