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Ancient history of the Chechens. Chechens: history of origin Ancient history of the Chechens of their origin

The question of the origin of the Chechen people is still debatable. According to one version, the Chechens are the autochthonous people of the Caucasus, a more exotic version connects the appearance of the Chechen ethnic group with the Khazars.

Difficulties in etymology

The emergence of the ethnonym "Chechens" has many explanations. Some scholars suggest that this word is a transliteration of the name of the Chechen people among the Kabardians - "shashan", which may have come from the name of the village of Big Chechen. Presumably, it was there in the 17th century that the Russians first met with the Chechens. According to another hypothesis, the word "Chechen" has Nogai roots and is translated as "robber, dashing, thieving person."

The Chechens themselves call themselves "Nokhchi". This word has no less complex etymological nature. The Caucasian scholar of the late XIX - early XX century Bashir Dalgat wrote that the name "Nokhchi" can be used as a common tribal name for both the Ingush and the Chechens. However, in modern Caucasian studies, it is customary to use the term “Vainakhs” (“our people”) in the designation of the Ingush and Chechens.

Recently, scientists have been paying attention to another variant of the ethnonym "Nokhchi" - "Nakhchmatians". The term is first encountered in the “Armenian Geography” of the 7th century. According to the Armenian orientalist Kerope Patkanov, the ethnonym "Nakhchmatians" is compared with the medieval ancestors of the Chechens.

ethnic diversity

Vainakh oral tradition tells that their ancestors came from beyond the mountains. Many scientists agree that the ancestors of the Caucasian peoples formed in Western Asia about 5 thousand years BC and over the next several thousand years actively migrated towards the Caucasian Isthmus, settling on the shores of the Black and Caspian Seas. Part of the settlers penetrated beyond the limits of the Caucasian Range along the Argun Gorge and settled in the mountainous part of modern Chechnya.

According to most modern Caucasian scholars, all subsequent time there was a complex process of ethnic consolidation of the Vainakh ethnos, in which neighboring peoples periodically intervened. Doctor of Philology Katy Chokaev notes that the arguments about the ethnic "purity" of the Chechens and Ingush are erroneous. According to the scientist, in their development, both peoples have come a long way, as a result of which they both absorbed the features of other ethnic groups and lost some of their features.

In the composition of modern Chechens and Ingush, ethnographers find a significant proportion of representatives of the Turkic, Dagestan, Ossetian, Georgian, Mongolian, and Russian peoples. This, in particular, is evidenced by the Chechen and Ingush languages, in which there is a noticeable percentage of borrowed words and grammatical forms. But we can also safely talk about the influence of the Vainakh ethnic group on neighboring peoples. For example, the orientalist Nikolai Marr wrote: “I will not hide the fact that in the highlanders of Georgia, together with them in Khevsurs, Pshavs, I see Chechen tribes that have become Georgianized.”

Ancient Caucasians

Doctor historical sciences Professor Georgy Anchabadze is sure that the Chechens are the oldest of the indigenous peoples of the Caucasus. He adheres to the Georgian historiographic tradition, according to which the brothers Kavkaz and Lek laid the foundation for two peoples: the first is Chechen-Ingush, the second is Dagestan. The descendants of the brothers subsequently settled the deserted territories of the North Caucasus from the mountains to the mouth of the Volga. This opinion is largely consistent with the statement of the German scientist Friedrich Blubenbach, who wrote that the Chechens have a Caucasian anthropological type, reflecting the appearance of the very first Caucasoid Kra-Magnons. Archaeological data also indicate that ancient tribes lived in the mountains of the North Caucasus as early as the Bronze Age.

The British historian Charles Rekherton in one of his works departs from the autochthonous nature of the Chechens and makes a bold statement that the origins of Chechen culture are the Hurrian and Urartian civilizations. The related, albeit distant, connections between the Hurrian and modern Vainakh languages are indicated, in particular, by the Russian linguist Sergei Starostin.

Ethnographer Konstantin Tumanov in his book "On the prehistoric language of Transcaucasia" suggested that the famous "Van inscriptions" - Urartian cuneiform texts - were made by the ancestors of the Vainakhs. To prove the antiquity of the Chechen people, Tumanov cited a huge number of toponyms. In particular, the ethnographer noted that in the Urartu language, a protected fortified area or fortress was called "khoi". In the same sense, this word is found in the Chechen-Ingush toponymy: khoi is a village in Cheberloi, which really had a strategic significance, blocking the way to the Cheberloev basin from Dagestan.

Noah's people

Let's return to the self-name of the Chechens "Nokhchi". Some researchers see in it a direct indication of the name of the Old Testament patriarch Noah (in the Koran - Nuh, in the Bible - Noah). They divide the word "nokhchi" into two parts: if the first - "nokh" - means Noah, then the second - "chi" - should be translated as "people" or "people". This, in particular, was pointed out by the German linguist Adolf Dyrr, who said that the element "chi" in any word means "man". You don't have to look far for examples. In order to designate the inhabitants of a city in Russian, in many cases it is enough for us to add the ending “chi” - Muscovites, Omsk.

Are Chechens descendants of the Khazars?

The version that the Chechens are the descendants of the biblical Noah has a continuation. A number of researchers claim that the Jews of the Khazar Khaganate, whom many call the 13th tribe of Israel, did not disappear without a trace. Defeated by the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Igorevich in 964, they went to the mountains of the Caucasus and there laid the foundations of the Chechen ethnos. In particular, some of the refugees after the victorious campaign of Svyatoslav were met in Georgia by the Arab traveler Ibn Khaukal.

A copy of a curious instruction from the NKVD from 1936 has been preserved in the Soviet archives. The document explained that up to 30% of Chechens secretly profess the religion of their ancestors Judaism and consider the rest of the Chechens to be low-born strangers.

It is noteworthy that Khazaria has a translation in the Chechen language - “Beautiful Country”. Magomed Muzaev, head of the Archives Department under the President and Government of the Chechen Republic, notes on this occasion: “It is quite possible that the capital of Khazaria was on our territory. We must know that Khazaria, which existed on the map for 600 years, was the most powerful state in the east of Europe.”

“Many ancient sources indicate that the Terek valley was inhabited by the Khazars. In the V-VI centuries. this country was called Barsilia, and, according to the Byzantine chroniclers Theophanes and Nicephorus, the homeland of the Khazars was located here, ”wrote the famous orientalist Lev Gumilyov.

Some Chechens are still convinced that they are descendants of the Khazar Jews. So, eyewitnesses say that during the Chechen war, one of the leaders of the militants, Shamil Basayev, said: "This war is revenge for the defeat of the Khazars."

A modern Russian writer - a Chechen by nationality - German Sadulaev also believes that some Chechen teips are descendants of the Khazars.

Another curious fact: on the most ancient image of a Chechen warrior, which has survived to this day, two six-pointed stars of the Israeli King David are clearly visible.

Chechens are the most ancient people of the Caucasus. They appeared on the territory of the North Caucasus in the 13th century as a result of the division of several ancient cities and are the largest ethnic group living in this territory. These people made their way along the Main Caucasian Range through the Argun Gorge and eventually settled in the mountainous part of the Republic of Chechnya. This people has its own centuries-old traditions and original ancient culture. In addition to the name Chechens, the people are called Chechens, Nakhche and Nokhchi.

Where live

Today, most Chechens live on the territory of the Russian Federation in the Chechen Republic and Ingushetia, there are Chechens in Dagestan, Stavropol Territory, Kalmykia, Volgograd, Astrakhan, Tyumen, Saratov regions, Moscow, North Ossetia, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Ukraine.

population

As a result of the 2016 census, the number of Chechens living in the Chechen Republic amounted to 1,394,833 people. About 1,550,000 Chechens live in the world.

History

In the history of this people, several settlements took place. About 5,000 Chechen families after the Caucasian War in 1865 moved to the territory Ottoman Empire. This movement is called Muhajirism. Today, the bulk of the Chechen diasporas in Turkey, Jordan and Syria are represented by the descendants of those settlers.

In 1944, half a million Chechens were deported to Central Asia, in 1957 they were allowed to return to their former homes, but some Chechens remained in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.

After the two Chechen wars, many Chechens left their homeland and went to the Arab countries, Turkey and the countries of Western Europe, the regions of the Russian Federation and the countries of the former USSR, especially Georgia.

Language

The Chechen language belongs to the Nakh branch of the Nakh-Dagestan language family, which is included in the hypothetical North Caucasian superfamily. It is distributed mainly on the territory of the Chechen Republic, in Ingushetia, Georgia, some regions of Dagestan: Khasavyurt, Kazbek, Novolak, Babayurt, Kizilyurt and other regions of Russia. Partial distribution of the language falls on Turkey, Syria and Jordan. Before the 1994 war, the number of Chechen speakers was 1 million people.

Since the Nakh group of languages includes the Ingush, Chechen and Batsbi languages, the Ignush and Chechens understand each other without an interpreter. These two nations are united by the concept of "Vainakh" which translates as "our people." But these peoples do not understand Batsbi, as it was strongly influenced by the Georgian language due to the Batsbi living in the gorges of Georgia.

The Chechen language has a number of subdialects and the following dialects:

Shatoi
Cheberloevsky
planar
Akkinsky (Aukhovsky)
Sharoi
Itum-Kalinsky
Melkhinsky
Kistian
Galanchozhian

With the use of a flat dialect, the Chechen language is spoken by residents of the environs of Grozny, literature is created in it, including fiction, newspapers, magazines, scientific research and textbooks. The works of classical world literature have been translated into Chechen. Chechen words are difficult, but they sound very beautiful.

Writing until 1925 was based on Arabic. Then, until 1938, it developed on the basis of the Latin script, and from this year to the present, the Chechen script is based on the Cyrillic alphabet. There are many borrowings in the Chechen language, up to 700 words from Turkic languages and up to 500 from Georgian. There are many borrowings from Russian, Arabic, Ossetian, Persian and Dagestan. Gradually, foreign words appeared in the Chechen language, for example: rally, export, parliament, kitchen, dance, mouthpiece, avant-garde, taxi and broth.

Religion

Most of the Chechens profess the Shafi madhhab of Sunnism. Among the Chechens, Sufi Islam is represented by the tarikats: the Naqshbandiya and the Kadiriya, which are divided into religious groups called vird brotherhoods. Their total number among the Chechens is 32. The most numerous Sufi brotherhood in Chechnya is the zikrists - followers of the Chechen Kadiri sheikh Kunta-Khadji Kishiev, and small species that descended from him: Mani-sheikh, Bammat-Girey Khadzhi and Chimmirza.

Names

Chechen names include three components:

Names borrowed from other languages, mainly through Russian.
Originally Chechen names.
Names borrowed from Arabic and Persian.

A large number of old names are derived from the names of birds and animals. For example, Borz is a wolf, Lecha is a falcon. There are names containing structure verb form, names in the form of independent participles formed from adjectives and qualitative adjectives. For example, Dika translates as "good". There are also compound names in the Chechen language, which are made up of two words: soltan and bek. Mostly borrowed from Russian female names: Raisa, Larisa, Louise, Rosa.

It is important to remember the dialect and its differences when pronouncing and writing names, since a name pronounced differently can have different meanings, for example, Abuyazid and Abuyazit, Yusup and Yusap. In Chechen names, the stress always falls on the first syllable.

Food

Previously, the basis of the diet of the Chechen people was mainly corn porridge, shish kebab, wheat stew and homemade bread. The cuisine of this people is one of the simplest and most ancient. Lamb and poultry remain the main products for cooking, the main components of many dishes are hot spices, garlic, onions, thyme, and peppers. An important component of dishes is greens. Chechen dishes are very satisfying, nutritious and healthy. A lot of food is made from cheese, wild garlic, cottage cheese, corn, pumpkin and dried meat. Chechens love meat broths, beef, boiled meat, they don’t eat pork at all.

Meat is served with dumplings made from corn or wheat flour, and with garlic seasoning. One of the main positions in the Chechen cuisine is occupied by flour products with various fillings from potatoes, cottage cheese, pumpkin, nettles and wild garlic. Chechens bake several types of bread:

barley
wheat
corn

Siskal cakes are baked from cornmeal, which used to be carried along with dried meat and taken on the road. Such food has always satisfies hunger well and saturates the body.

A life

The main occupation of the Chechens has long been cattle breeding, hunting, beekeeping and arable farming. Women were always responsible for household work, weaving cloth, making carpets, cloaks, felt, sewing shoes and dresses.

dwelling

Chechens live in auls - villages. Due to the natural conditions of the area, the dwellings differ. Chechens living in the mountains have houses built of stone and are called sakli. Such sakli were also built from adobe, they can be erected in a week. Unfortunately, many had to do this when the villages were often attacked by enemies. On the plains they built mainly turluch houses, neat and bright inside. Wood, clay and straw were used for construction. The windows in the houses are unframed, but fitted with shutters to keep out the wind and cold. At the entrance there is a canopy that protects from heat and rain. The houses were heated by fireplaces. Each house has a kunatskaya, which consists of several rooms. In them, the owner spends the whole day and in the evening returns to the family. The house has a fenced yard. A special oven is being built in the yard, in which bread is baked.

During construction, it was important to take into account safety and reliability, the ability to defend if the enemy attacks. In addition, hayfields, water, arable land and pastures were to be located nearby. The Chechens took care of the land and chose places for housing construction even on the rocks.

The most common in mountain villages were one-story houses with flat roofs. Chechens also built houses with 2 floors, towers with 3 or 5 floors. The dwelling house, tower and outbuildings were collectively called estates. Depending on the relief of the mountains, the building of estates was horizontal or vertical.

Appearance

In anthropology, Chechens are a mixed type. Eye color can be from black to dark brown and from blue to light green. Hair color - from black to dark blond. The nose of Chechens is often concave and upturned. Chechens are tall and well built, women are very beautiful.

Everyday clothes of a Chechen man consist of the following elements:

chekmen, sewn from gray or dark fabric;
arkhaluks, or beshmets, of various colors, were worn white in summer;
harem pants narrowed down;
cloth leggings and chiriki (shoes without soles).

Elegant dresses are sheathed with lace, special attention is paid to the decoration of weapons. In bad weather, they wore a hood or cloak, which Chechen women sewed very skillfully. Shoes were mainly made from rawhide. Many wore Caucasian soft boots. The rich wore chuvyaks and black morocco boots, to which buffalo leather soles were sometimes sewn.

The main headdress of a Chechen is a cone-shaped hat, which ordinary people were made from sheepskin, and the rich - from the skins of Bukhara lamb. In the summer, they wore a hat made of felt.

In the form of decorations, bone gaztris were sewn onto men's suits, and a belt with silver plaques was put on. The image was completed with a dagger made by local craftsmen.

Women wore:

long shirts to the knees, blue or red;
wide trousers, which were tied at the ankles;
on top of the shirt they put on a long dress with wide and long sleeves;
young women and girls wore dresses gathered at the waist with a belt made of cloth. Dresses in older women without folds and belts, wide;
the head was covered with a scarf made of silk or wool. Elderly women wore bandages under a scarf that tightly fitted their heads and descended on their backs in the form of a bag. It was covered with braided hair. Such a headdress was also very common in Dagestan;
women wore chuvyaks as shoes. Wealthy families wore galoshes, shoes and boots of local or urban production.

Women's clothing from a wealthy family was distinguished by sophistication and luxury. They sewed it from expensive fabrics, sheathed it with silver or gold galloons. Rich women were very fond of wearing jewelry: silver belts, bracelets and earrings.

In winter, Chechens wore a beshmet on wadding with clasps made of metal or silver. The sleeves of the clothes below the elbow were split and fastened with buttons made of simple or silver threads. Beshmet was sometimes worn in the summer.

IN Soviet time Chechens switched to urban clothes, but many men retained the traditional headdress, which they rarely parted with. Today, many men and old people wear hats, Circassians and beshmets. In Chechnya, Caucasian shirts with a standing collar are found on men.

Women's national costume has survived to this day much more. And now older women wear chokhta, dresses with harem pants and homemade dudes. Young women and girls prefer city-cut dresses, but they are sewn with long sleeves and a closed collar. Shawls and shoes today are of urban production.

Character

Chechens are cheerful, impressionable and witty people, but at the same time they are distinguished by severity, deceit and suspicion. These character traits were probably developed among the people in the course of centuries of struggle. Even the enemies of the Chechens have long recognized that this nation is brave, indomitable, dexterous, hardy and calm in the fight.

Important for Chechens is the ethical code of honor of Konakhalla, which is a universal code of conduct for any man, regardless of his religion. This code reflects all the norms of morality that a believer and a worthy son of his people possess. This code is ancient and existed among the Chechens in the Alanian era.

Chechens never raise a hand against their children because they don't want them to grow up to be cowards. These people are very attached to their homeland, to which various touching songs and poems are dedicated.

Traditions

Chechens have always been known for their hospitality. Even in ancient times, they always helped travelers, gave them food and shelter. This is the way it is in every family. If a guest liked something in the house, the hosts should give it to him. With guests, the host takes a place closer to the door, thereby showing that the guest is the most important in the house. At the table, the owner must remain until the last guest. It is indecent to interrupt the meal first. If a relative, even a distant one, or a neighbor has entered the house, the younger members of the family and young men should serve him. Women should not show themselves to guests.

Many people think that women's rights are violated in Chechnya, but in reality this is far from the case. A woman who was able to raise a worthy son, along with other family members, has the right to vote during decision-making. When a woman enters the room, the men present must stand up. When a woman comes to visit, special ceremonies and customs are also held in her honor.

When a man and a woman walk side by side, she should be one step behind, the man is obliged to take the danger first. The young wife must first feed his parents and then himself. If there is even the most distant relationship between a girl and a guy, marriage between them is prohibited, but this is not a gross violation of traditions.

The father is always considered the head of the family, the woman looks after the household. The husband and wife do not call each other by name, but say “my wife” and “my husband”, “the one in the house”, “the mother of my children”, “the owner of this house”.

It is humiliating and insulting for a man to interfere in women's affairs. When a son brings a daughter-in-law into the house, the main obligations of the household fall on her. She should get up before everyone else, do the cleaning and go to bed last. Previously, if a woman did not want to follow the rules of the family, she could be punished or kicked out.

The daughter-in-law is brought up by the husband's mother, who is called nana. A young wife should not freely talk with her mother-in-law, show herself in front of her with her head uncovered and in an untidy appearance. Nana can shift some of her responsibilities to her older daughter-in-law. In addition to the household, the husband's mother must observe all traditions and family rituals. The oldest woman in the family has always been considered the keeper of the hearth.

It is very uncivilized to interrupt the elder and start a conversation without his request and permission. The younger ones should always let the elder pass, politely and respectfully greet him. It is a great insult for a man if someone touches his hat. This is tantamount to a public slap in the face. If the children have a fight, the first thing parents will scold their child and only then begin to figure out who is to blame and who is right. If the son has started smoking, the father, through the mother, should inspire him that it is very harmful and unacceptable, and give up this habit himself.

This people has a custom of avoidance, which forbids showing feelings in public. It is extended to all family members. Everyone should behave with restraint in public. The Chechens still have the cult of fire and hearth, the tradition of swearing and cursing with fire.

Many rites and rituals are associated with weapons and war. It was considered a shame and cowardice to get a sword from the scabbard in front of an enemy or offender and not use it. At 63, men reached the age of untying their belts, they could go out into the street without weapons. And to this day, the Chechens have preserved such a custom as blood feud.

A Chechen wedding consists of many rituals and traditions. The groom was forbidden to see the bride before the wedding and for some time after the celebration. A wedding dress is both a festive attire for girls and young women. It is sewn from bright or white silk, there is a continuous slit in front of the dress. On both sides, an ornament in the form of silver buttons of Kubachi production is sewn in the chest area. The dress is complemented by a silver belt of the Caucasian type. A white scarf is put on the head, which completely covers the head and hair of the bride. Sometimes they wear a veil over a scarf.

culture

Chechen folklore is diverse and includes genres that are characteristic of the oral folk art of many peoples:

everyday fairy tales, fairy tales, about animals;
mythology;
heroic epic;
lyrical, labor, ritual, heroic-epic, lullaby songs;
legends;
puzzles;
sayings and proverbs;
children's folklore (riddles, tongue twisters, counting rhymes, songs);
religious folklore (tales, songs, nazms, hadiths);
creativity of tyulliks and zhukhurgs;

Chechen mythology, the names of deities who personified the elements of nature, have been preserved quite fragmentarily. The musical folklore of the Chechens is bright and original, they amazingly dance the national Chechen dance Nokhchi and Lezginka (Lovzar). Music is of great importance to this people. With its help, they express hatred, look to the future and remember the past. Many of the national musical instruments are still common today:

dechig-pondar
adhyokhu-pondar
zurna
dudka shiedag
bagpipes
vota drum
tambourine

The instruments were used for ensemble and solo performance. On holidays, a joint game is played on different instruments.

Famous personalities

Among the Chechen people there are many prominent personalities in politics, sports, creativity, science and journalism:

Buvaysar Saitiev, 3-time Olympic champion in freestyle wrestling

Movsar Mintsaev, opera singer;
Mahmud Esambaev, People's Artist of the USSR, dance master;
Umar Beksultanov, composer;
Abuzar Aidamirov, poet and writer, classic of Chechen literature;
Abdul-Khamid Khamidov, playwright, bright talent of Chechen literature;
Katy Chokaev, linguist, professor, doctor of philological sciences;
Raisa Akhmatova, people's poetess;
Sherip Inal, screenwriter and film director;
Kharcho Shukri, calligrapher;
Salman Yandarov, surgeon, orthopedist, candidate of medical sciences;
Buvaysar Saitiev, 3-time Olympic champion in freestyle wrestling;
Salman Khasimikov, 4-time freestyle wrestling champion;
Zaurbek Baysangurov, boxer, twice European champion, world champion in light and welterweight;
Lechi Kurbanov, European champion in Kyokushin karate.

From time immemorial, Chechens have been famous as hardy, strong, dexterous, inventive, severe and skillful warriors. The main features of the representatives of this nation have always been: pride, fearlessness, the ability to cope with any life difficulties, as well as high reverence for consanguinity. Representatives of the Chechen people: Ramzan Kadyrov, Dzhokhar Dudayev.

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Origin of the Chechens

There are several versions of the origin of the name of the Chechen nation:

Most scientists are inclined to believe that in this way the people began to be called around the 13th century, after the name of the village of Big Chechen. Later, not only the inhabitants of this settlement, but also all neighboring villages of a similar type, began to be called this way.
According to another opinion, the name "Chechens" appeared thanks to the Kabardians, who called this people "Shashan". And, allegedly, the representatives of Russia simply changed this name a little, making it more convenient and harmonious for our language, and over time it took root and this people began to be called Chechens not only in Russia, but also in other states.
There is a third version - according to it, other Caucasian peoples initially called the inhabitants of modern Chechnya Chechens.

By the way, the very word “Vainakh” translated from Nakh into Russian sounds like “our people” or “our people”.

If we talk about the origin of the nation itself, then it is generally accepted that the Chechens have never been a nomadic people and their history is closely connected with the Caucasian lands. True, some scientists argue that in ancient times, representatives of this nation occupied larger territories in the northeastern Caucasus, and only then massively migrated to the north of Kazvkaz. The very fact of such a relocation of the people does not cause any particular doubts, but the motives for the move are not known to scientists.

According to one version, which is partly confirmed by Georgian sources, the Chechens at a certain moment simply decided to occupy the North Caucasian space, where no one lived at that time. Moreover, there is an opinion that the very name of the Caucasus is also of Vainakh origin. Allegedly, in ancient times, that was the name of the Chechen ruler, and the territory got its name from his name "Caucasus".

Having settled in the North Caucasus, the Chechens led a settled way of life and did not leave their native places without extreme necessity. They lived in this territory for more than one hundred years (from about the 13th century).

Even when in 1944 almost the entire indigenous population was deported in connection with the unfair accusation of supporting the fascists, the Chechens did not remain in the “foreign” land and returned to their homeland.

Caucasian war

In the winter of 1781, Chechnya officially became part of Russia. The corresponding document was signed by many respectable elders of the largest Chechen villages, who not only put their signature on paper, but also swore on the Koran that they would accept Russian citizenship.

But at the same time, the majority of representatives of the nation considered this document a mere formality and, in fact, were going to continue their autonomous existence. One of the most ardent opponents of the entry of Chechnya into Russia was Sheikh Mansur, who had a huge influence on his fellow tribesmen, since he was not only a preacher of Islam, but was also the first imam of the North Caucasus. Many Chechens supported Mansur, which later helped him become the leader of the liberation movement and unite all the discontented highlanders into one force.

Thus began the Caucasian War, which lasted nearly fifty years. In the end, the Russian military forces managed to suppress the resistance of the highlanders, however, extremely tough measures were taken for this, up to the burning of hostile auls. Also during that period, the Sunzhinskaya (named after the Sunzha River) line of fortifications was built.

However, the end of the war was very conditional. The established peace was extremely shaky. The situation was complicated by the fact that oil deposits were discovered in Chechnya, from which the Chechens received practically no income. Another difficulty was the local mentality, which was very different from the Russian one.

Chechens and then repeatedly staged various uprisings. But despite all the difficulties, Russia greatly appreciated the representatives of this nationality. The fact is that men of Chechen nationality were wonderful warriors and differed not only physical strength, but also courage, as well as an unbending fighting spirit. During the First World War, an elite regiment was created, consisting of only Chechens and called the "Wild Division".

Chechens have indeed always been considered remarkable warriors, in which composure is surprisingly combined with courage and the will to win. The physical data of representatives of this nationality are also impeccable. Chechen men are characterized by: strength, endurance, dexterity, etc.

On the one hand, this is explained by the fact that they lived in rather harsh conditions, where it was extremely difficult for a physically weak person to exist, and on the other hand, by the fact that almost the entire history of this people is associated with constant struggle and the need to defend their interests with arms in hand. After all, if we look at the events that took place in the Caucasus, both in ancient times and in our time, we will see that the Chechen people have always remained quite autonomous and, in case of dissatisfaction with certain circumstances, easily went into a state of war.

At the same time, the combat science of the Chechens has always been very developed and fathers with early childhood they taught their sons how to use weapons and how to ride. The ancient Chechens managed to do the almost impossible and create their own invincible mountain cavalry. Also, it is they who are considered the founders of such military techniques as nomadic batteries, the technique of blocking the enemy or the withdrawal of "crawling" troops into battle. From time immemorial, their military tactics have been based on surprise, followed by a massive attack on the enemy. Moreover, many experts agree that it is the Chechens, and not the Cossacks, who are the founders of the partisan method of warfare.

National Features

The Chechen language belongs to the Nakh-Dagestan branch and has more than nine dialects that are used in speech and writing. But the main dialect is considered flat, which in the 20th century formed the basis of the literary dialect of this people.

As for religious views, the vast majority of Chechens profess Islam.

Chechens also attach great importance to the observance of the national code of honor "Konakhalla". These ethical rules of conduct were developed in ancient times. And this moral code, to put it very simply, tells how a man should behave in order to be considered worthy of his people and his ancestors.

By the way, Chechens are also characterized by a very strong relationship. Initially, the culture of this people developed in such a way that society was divided into various teips (kinds), belonging to which was of great importance for the Vainakhs. The relation to this or that genus was always determined by the father. Moreover, to this day, representatives of this people, getting to know a new person, often ask where he comes from and from which teip.

Another type of association is "tukhum". This was the name of teip communities created for one purpose or another: joint hunting, farming, protection of territories, repelling enemy attacks, etc.

Chechen. Lezginka.

Special attention should be paid to the national Chechen cuisine, which is rightfully considered one of the most ancient in the Caucasus. From time immemorial, the main products used by the Chechens for cooking were: meat, cheese, cottage cheese, as well as pumpkin, wild garlic and corn. Special importance is also attached to spices, which are usually used in large quantities.

Chechen traditions

Living in the harsh conditions of the mountainous area left its mark on the culture of the Chechens, their traditions. Life here was many times harder than on the plain.

For example, the highlanders often worked the land on the slopes of the peaks, and in order to avoid accidents, they had to work in large groups, obliging themselves with one rope. Otherwise, one of them could easily fall into the abyss and die. Often, half of the aul gathered to carry out such work. Therefore, for a true Chechen, respectable neighborly relations are sacred. And if grief happened in the family of people living nearby, then this grief is the grief of the whole village. If a breadwinner was lost in a neighboring house, then his widow or mother was supported by the whole aul, sharing food or other necessary things with her.

Due to the fact that work in the mountains is usually very hard, the Chechens have always tried to protect the older generation from it. And even the usual greeting here is based on the fact that with old man first they say hello, and then they ask if he needs help with something. Also in Chechnya, it is considered bad form if a young man walks past an elderly man doing hard work and does not offer his help.

Hospitality also plays a huge role for the Chechens. In ancient times, a person could easily get lost in the mountains and die from hunger or an attack by a wolf or a bear. That is why it has always been unthinkable for Chechens not to let a stranger into the house who asks for help. It does not matter what the name of the guest is and whether he is familiar with the hosts, if he is in trouble, then he will be provided with food and lodging for the night.

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Mutual respect is also of particular importance in Chechen culture. In ancient times, the highlanders moved mainly along thin paths encircling peaks and gorges. Because of this, it was sometimes difficult for people to disperse on such paths. And the slightest inaccurate movement could cause a fall from the mountain and the death of a person. That is why Chechens, from early childhood, were taught to respect other people, and especially women and the elderly.

The first Chechen states appeared in the Middle Ages. In the 19th century, after a long Caucasian war, the country became part of Russian Empire. But even in the future, the history of Chechnya was full of contradictory and tragic pages.

Ethnogenesis

The Chechen people were formed over a long period of time. The Caucasus has always been distinguished by ethnic diversity, therefore, even in the scientific community, there has not yet been a unified theory about the origin of this nation. The Chechen language belongs to the Nakh branch of the Nakh-Dagestan language family. It is also called East Caucasian, according to the settlement of the ancient tribes that became the first carriers of these dialects.

The history of Chechnya began with the appearance of the Vainakhs (today this term refers to the ancestors of the Ingush and Chechens). A variety of nomadic peoples took part in its ethnogenesis: Scythians, Indo-Iranians, Sarmatians, etc. Archaeologists attribute the carriers of the Colchis and Koban cultures to the ancestors of the Chechens. Their traces are scattered throughout the Caucasus.

Ancient history

Due to the fact that the history of ancient Chechnya passed in the absence of a centralized state, it is extremely difficult to judge the events until the Middle Ages. It is only known for certain that in the 9th century the Vainakhs were subjugated by their neighbors, who created the Alanian kingdom, as well as the mountain Avars. The latter in the 6th-11th centuries lived in the state of Sarire with its capital in Tanusi. It is noteworthy that both Islam and Christianity were widespread there. However, the history of Chechnya developed in such a way that the Chechens became Muslims (unlike, for example, their Georgian neighbors).

In the XIII century, the Mongol invasions began. Since then, the Chechens have not left the mountains, fearing numerous hordes. According to one of the hypotheses (it also has opponents), the first early feudal state of the Vainakhs was created at the same time. This formation did not last long and was destroyed during the invasion of Tamerlane at the end of the XIV century.

Teips

For a long time, the plains at the foot of the Caucasus Mountains were controlled by Turkic-speaking tribes. Therefore, the history of Chechnya has always been associated with mountains. The way of life of its inhabitants was also formed in accordance with the conditions of the landscape. In isolated villages, where sometimes only one pass led, teips arose. These were territorial entities created according to tribal affiliation.

Having emerged in the Middle Ages, teips still exist and remain an important phenomenon for the entire Chechen society. These alliances were created to protect against aggressive neighbors. The history of Chechnya is replete with wars and conflicts. In teips, the custom of blood feud was born. This tradition brought its own peculiarities to the relations between teips. If a conflict flared up between several people, it necessarily developed into a tribal war up to the complete destruction of the enemy. This has been the history of Chechnya since ancient times. existed for a very long time, since the teip system largely replaced the state in the usual sense of the word.

Religion

There is practically no information about what the ancient history of Chechnya was like to this day. Some archaeological finds suggest that the Vainakhs were pagans until the 11th century. They worshiped the local pantheon of deities. The Chechens had a cult of nature with all its characteristic features: sacred groves, mountains, trees, etc. Witchcraft, magic and other esoteric practices were widespread.

In the XI-XII centuries. in this region of the Caucasus began the spread of Christianity, which came from Georgia and Byzantium. However, the empire of Constantinople soon collapsed. Sunni Islam replaced Christianity. The Chechens adopted it from their Kumyk neighbors and the Golden Horde. The Ingush became Muslims in the 16th century, and the inhabitants of remote mountain villages - in the 17th century. But for a long time, Islam could not influence social customs, which were much more based on national traditions. And only at the end of the 18th century, Sunnism in Chechnya took approximately the same positions as in the Arab countries. This was due to the fact that religion has become an important tool in the fight against Russian Orthodox intervention. Hatred of strangers was kindled not only on national, but also on confessional grounds.

XVI century

In the 16th century, the Chechens began to occupy the deserted plains in the valley of the Terek River. At the same time, most of these people remained to live in the mountains, adapting to their natural conditions. Those who went to the north were looking for a better life there. The population grew naturally, and scarce resources became scarce. Crowding and hunger forced many teips to settle in new lands. The colonists built small villages, which they called by the name of their kind. Part of this toponymy has survived to this day.

The history of Chechnya since ancient times has been associated with danger from nomads. But in the sixteenth century they became much less powerful. The Golden Horde collapsed. Numerous uluses were constantly at war with each other, which is why they could not establish control over their neighbors. In addition, it was then that the expansion of the Russian kingdom began. In 1560 Kazan and Astrakhan khanates were conquered. Ivan the Terrible began to control the entire course of the Volga, thus gaining access to the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus. Russia in the mountains had faithful allies in the person of the Kabardian princes (Ivan the Terrible even married the daughter of the Kabardian ruler Temryuk).

First contacts with Russia

In 1567, the Russians founded the Tersky prison. Ivan the Terrible was asked about this by Temryuk, who hoped for the help of the tsar in the conflict with the Crimean Khan, a vassal of the Ottoman Sultan. The place where the fortress was built was the mouth of the Sunzha River, a tributary of the Terek. It was the first Russian settlement that arose in the immediate vicinity of the Chechen lands. For a long time, it was the Terek prison that was the springboard for Moscow expansion in the Caucasus.

The Grebensky Cossacks acted as colonists, who were not afraid of life in a distant foreign land and defended the interests of the sovereign with their service. It was they who established direct contact with local natives. Grozny was interested in the history of the people of Chechnya, and he received the first Chechen embassy, which was sent by the influential prince Shikh-Murza Okotsky. He asked for patronage from Moscow. Consent to this was already given by the son of Ivan the Terrible. However, this union did not last long. In 1610, Shikh-Murza was killed, his heir was overthrown, and the principality was captured by the neighboring Kumyk tribe.

Chechens and Terek Cossacks

Back in 1577, the basis of which was formed by the Cossacks who moved from the Don, Khopra and Volga, as well as Orthodox Circassians, Ossetians, Georgians and Armenians. The latter fled from Persian and Turkish expansion. Many of them became Russified. The growth of the Cossack mass was significant. Chechnya could not fail to notice this. The history of the origin of the first conflicts between the highlanders and the Cossacks is not recorded, but over time, skirmishes became more and more frequent and commonplace.

Chechens and other natives of the Caucasus staged raids to capture livestock and other useful booty. Quite often, civilians were taken into captivity and later returned for ransom or made into slaves. In response to this, the Cossacks also raided the mountains and robbed villages. Nevertheless, such cases were the exception rather than the rule. Often there were long periods of peace, when neighbors traded among themselves and acquired family ties. Over time, the Chechens even adopted some features of housekeeping from the Cossacks, and the Cossacks, in turn, began to wear clothes very similar to the mountain ones.

18th century

The second half of the 18th century in the North Caucasus was marked by the construction of a new Russian fortified line. It consisted of several fortresses, where all the new colonists came. In 1763 Mozdok was founded, then Ekaterinograd, Pavlovskaya, Maryinskaya, Georgievskaya.

These forts replaced the Terek prison, which the Chechens once even managed to plunder. Meanwhile, in the 1980s, the Sharia movement began to spread in Chechnya. Slogans about ghazawat - the war for the Islamic faith - became popular.

Caucasian war

In 1829, the North Caucasian Imamat was created - an Islamic theocratic state on the territory of Chechnya. At the same time, the country had its own national hero, Shamil. In 1834 he became an imam. Dagestan and Chechnya obeyed him. The history of the emergence and spread of his power is connected with the struggle against Russian expansion in the North Caucasus.

The fight against the Chechens continued for several decades. At a certain stage, the Caucasian War intertwined with the war against Persia, as well as the Crimean War, when the Western countries of Europe came out against Russia. Whose help could Chechnya count on? The history of the Nokhchi state in the 19th century would not have been so long if it were not for the support of the Ottoman Empire. And yet, despite the fact that the Sultan helped the highlanders, Chechnya was finally conquered in 1859. Shamil was first captured and then lived in honorary exile in Kaluga.

After the February Revolution, Chechen gangs began to attack the environs of Grozny and the Vladikavkaz railway. In the autumn of 1917, the so-called "native division" returned home from the front of the First World War. It consisted of Chechens. The division staged a real battle with the Terek Cossacks.

Soon the Bolsheviks came to power in Petrograd. Their Red Guard entered Grozny already in January 1918. Some of the Chechens supported the Soviet government, others went to the mountains, others helped the whites. From February 1919, Grozny was under the control of the troops of Pyotr Wrangel and his British allies. And only in March 1920 did the Red Army finally establish itself in

Deportation

In 1936, a new Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was formed. Meanwhile, partisans remained in the mountains, who opposed the Bolsheviks. The last such gangs were destroyed in 1938. However, separatist sentiments remained among some of the inhabitants of the republic.

Soon the Great Patriotic War began, from which both Chechnya and Russia suffered. The history of the fight against the German offensive in the Caucasus, as well as on all other fronts, was notable for the complexity of the Soviet troops. Heavy losses were aggravated by the appearance of Chechen formations that acted against the Red Army or even colluded with the Nazis.

This gave the Soviet leadership an excuse to start repressions against the entire people. On February 23, 1944, all Chechens and neighboring Ingush, regardless of their attitude towards the USSR, were deported to Central Asia.

Ichkeria

The Chechens were able to return to their homeland only in 1957. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, separate sentiments reawakened in the republic. In 1991, the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria was proclaimed in Grozny. For some time, its conflict with the federal center was in a frozen state. In 1994, Russian President Boris Yeltsin decided to send troops into Chechnya to restore Moscow's power there. Officially, the operation was called "measures to maintain constitutional order."

First Chechen War ended on August 31, 1996, when the Khasavyurt agreements were signed. In fact, this agreement meant the withdrawal of federal troops from Ichkeria. The parties agreed to determine the status of Chechnya by December 31, 2001. With the advent of peace, Ichkeria became independent, although this was not legally recognized by Moscow.

Modernity

Even after the signing of the Khasavyurt agreements, the situation on the border with Chechnya remained extremely turbulent. The republic has become a hiding place for extremists, Islamists, mercenaries and just criminals. On August 7, a brigade of militants Shamil Basayev and Khattab invaded neighboring Dagestan. The extremists wanted to create an independent Islamist state on its territory.

The history of Chechnya and Dagestan is very similar, and not only because of the geographical proximity, but also in connection with the similarity of the ethnic and confessional composition of the population. Federal troops launched a counter-terrorist operation. First, the militants were ejected from the territory of Dagestan. Then the Russian army re-entered Chechnya. The active combat phase of the campaign ended in the summer of 2000, when Grozny was cleared. After that, the regime of the counter-terrorist operation was officially maintained for another 9 years. Today Chechnya is one of the full-fledged subjects of the Russian Federation.

According to numerous studies, the Chechens are one of the most ancient peoples of the Caucasus with an expressive anthropological type, a characteristic ethnic face, an original culture and a rich language. Already at the end of the 3rd - the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. the original culture of the local population is developing on the territory of the Chechen Republic. Chechens were directly related to the formation in the Caucasus of such cultures as early agricultural, Kuro-Arak, Maikop, Kayakent-Kharachoev, Mugergan, Koban. totality modern indicators archeology, anthropology, linguistics and ethnography established the deeply local origin of the Chechen (Nakh) people. Mentions of the Chechens (under various names), as the indigenous inhabitants of the Caucasus, are found in many ancient and medieval sources. We find the first reliable written information about the ancestors of the Chechens from Greco-Roman historians of the 1st century. BC. and the beginning of the 1st c. AD Archaeological research proves the existence of close economic and cultural ties of Chechens not only with neighboring territories, but also with the peoples of Western Asia and Eastern Europe. Together with the rest of the peoples of the Caucasus, the Chechens participated in the fight against the invasions of the Romans, Iranians, and Arabs. From the ninth century the flat part of the Chechen Republic was part of the Alanian kingdom. The mountainous regions became part of the kingdom of Serir. The progressive development of the medieval Chechen Republic was stopped by the invasion in the thirteenth century. Mongol-Tatars, who destroyed the first public entities on its territory. Under the onslaught of the nomads, the ancestors of the Chechens were forced to leave the plains and go to the mountains, which undoubtedly delayed the socio-economic development of the Chechen society. In the fourteenth century Chechens who recovered from the Mongol invasion formed the state of Simsir, which was later destroyed by the troops of Timur. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the plain regions of Chechnya fell under the control of Kabardian and Dagestan feudal lords. The Chechens forced out by the Mongolo-Tatars from the flat lands until the 16th century. lived mainly in the mountains, divided into territorial groups that received names from mountains, rivers, etc. (Michikovtsy, Kachkalykovtsy), near which they lived. From the sixteenth century Chechens begin to return to the plain. From about the same time, Russian Cossack settlers appeared on the Terek and Sunzha, who would soon become an integral part of the North Caucasian community. The Terek-Grebensk Cossacks, which became an important factor in the economic and political history of the region, consisted not only of fugitive Russians, but also of representatives of the mountain peoples themselves, primarily Chechens. In the historical literature, there was a consensus that in the initial period of the formation of the Terek-Grebensk Cossacks (in the 16th-17th centuries), peaceful, friendly relations developed between them and the Chechens. They continued until the end of the 18th century, until tsarism began to use the Cossacks for its colonial purposes. Centuries-old peaceful relations between the Cossacks and the highlanders contributed to the mutual influence of the highlander and Russian culture. From the end of the sixteenth century the formation of the Russian-Chechen military-political alliance begins. Both parties were interested in its creation. Russia needed the help of the North Caucasian highlanders to successfully fight Turkey and Iran, who had long tried to take over the North Caucasus. Convenient routes of communication with Transcaucasia went through Chechnya. For political and economic reasons, the Chechens were also vitally interested in an alliance with Russia. In 1588, the first Chechen embassy arrived in Moscow, petitioning for the acceptance of Chechens under Russian protection. The Moscow Tsar issued a corresponding charter. The mutual interest of the Chechen owners and the tsarist authorities in peaceful political and economic relations led to the establishment of a military-political alliance between them. By decrees from Moscow, the Chechens constantly went on campaigns together with the Kabardians and the Terek Cossacks, including against the Crimea and the Iranian-Turkish troops. With all certainty it can be argued that in the XVI-XVII centuries. Russia had no more loyal and consistent allies in the North Caucasus than the Chechens. About the emerging close rapprochement between Chechens and Russia in the middle of the XVI-beginning of the XVII centuries. says the fact that part of the Terek Cossacks served under the command of the "Okotsky Murzas" - Chechen owners. All of the above is confirmed by a large number of archival documents. In the second half of the 18th century, and especially in its last two decades, a number of Chechen auls and societies took Russian citizenship. The largest number the oath of allegiance falls on 1781, which gave some historians reason to write that this meant the annexation of the Chechen Republic to Russia. However, in the last third of the eighteenth century. new, negative aspects have also appeared in Russian-Chechen relations. As Russia strengthened in the North Caucasus and its rivals (Turkey and Iran) weakened in the struggle for the region, tsarism began to move more and more actively from allied relations with the highlanders (including the Chechens) to their direct subordination. At the same time, mountain lands are captured, on which military fortifications and Cossack villages are built. All this met with armed resistance from the highlanders. From the beginning of the nineteenth century there is an even sharper activation of the Caucasian policy of Russia. In 1818, with the construction of the Grozny fortress, a massive offensive of tsarism against Chechnya began. Viceroy of the Caucasus A.P. Yermolov (1816-1827), having discarded the previous, centuries-old experience of predominantly peaceful relations between Russia and the highlanders, begins by force to quickly establish Russian power in the region. In response, the liberation struggle of the highlanders rises. The tragic Caucasian war begins. In 1840, in response to the repressive policy of the tsarist administration, a general armed uprising took place in the Chechen Republic. Shamil is proclaimed Imam of the Chechen Republic. The Chechen Republic becomes an integral part of the theocratic state of Shamil - the imamate. The process of joining the Chechen Republic to Russia ends in 1859, after the final defeat of Shamil. Chechens suffered greatly during the Caucasian War. Dozens of Chechen villages were completely destroyed. Almost a third of the population died from military operations, hunger and disease. It should be noted that even during the years of the Caucasian War, trade, political, diplomatic and cultural ties between the Chechens and Russian settlers along the Terek, which arose in the previous period, were not interrupted. Even during the years of this war, the border between the Russian state and Chechen societies was not only a line of armed contact, but also a kind of contact-civilization zone, where economic and personal (Kunach) ties developed. The process of mutual knowledge and mutual influence of Russians and Chechens, which weakened enmity and mistrust, has not been interrupted since the end of the 16th century. During the years of the Caucasian War, the Chechens repeatedly tried to peacefully, politically solve the emerging problems in Russian-Chechen relations. In the 60-70s of the nineteenth century. in the Chechen Republic, administrative and land tax reforms were carried out, the first secular schools for Chechen children were created. In 1868 the first primer in the Chechen language was published. In 1896 the Grozny city school was opened. From the end of the nineteenth century commercial oil production began. In 1893 the railway connected Grozny with the center of Russia. Already at the beginning of the twentieth century. Grozny began to turn into one of the industrial centers of the North Caucasus. Despite the fact that these transformations were carried out in the spirit of the establishment of colonial orders (it was this circumstance that caused the uprising in the Chechen Republic in 1877, as well as the resettlement of part of the population within the Ottoman Empire), they contributed to the drawing of the Chechen Republic into a single Russian administrative, economic and cultural and educational system. During the years of revolution and civil war, anarchy and anarchy dominated in Chechnya. During this period, the Chechens survived the revolution and counter-revolution, the ethnic war with the Cossacks, the genocide of the White and Red Armies. Attempts to create an independent state, both religious (the emirate of Sheikh Uzun-Khadzhi) and secular (Mountainous Republic), were not crowned with success. Ultimately, the poor part of the Chechens made a choice in favor of the Soviet government, which promised them freedom, equality, land and statehood. Decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee in 1922 proclaimed the creation of the Chechen Autonomous Region within the framework of the RSFSR. In 1934, the Chechen and Ingush autonomies were united into the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Region. In 1936 it was transformed into the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. During the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945), the Nazi troops invaded the territory of the autonomy (in autumn 1942). In January 1943, the Chechen-Ingush ASSR was liberated. Chechens bravely fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army. Several thousand soldiers were awarded orders and medals of the USSR. 18 Chechens were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. In 1944, the autonomous republic was liquidated. Two hundred thousand soldiers and officers of the NKVD and the Red Army conducted a military operation to deport over half a million Chechens and Ingush to Kazakhstan and Central Asia. A significant part of the deportees died during the resettlement and in the first year of exile. In 1957, the Chechen-Ingush ASSR was restored. At the same time, some mountainous regions of the Chechen Republic remained closed to Chechens. In November 1990, the session of the Supreme Council of the Chechen-Ingush Republic adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty. On November 1, 1991, the creation of the Chechen Republic was proclaimed. The new Chechen authorities refused to sign the Federative Treaty. In June 1993, under the leadership of the Soviet General D. Dudayev, a military coup was carried out in the Chechen Republic. At the request of D. Dudayev, Russian troops were withdrawn from the Chechen Republic. Uncertainty and a struggle for power reigned in the republic, resulting in open confrontation. So, in August 1994, the opposition Provisional Council of the Chechen Republic announced the removal of D. Dudayev from power. Deployed in the Chechen Republic in November 1994 fighting ended with the defeat of the opposition. December 11, 1994, on the basis of the decree of the President of the Russian Federation Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin "On measures to suppress the activities of illegal armed groups on the territory of the Chechen Republic", the commissioning of Russian troops in the Czech Republic. Despite the capture of Grozny by the federal forces and the creation of the Government of the National Revival, the hostilities were not stopped. During the hostilities, a large number of civilians died, a significant part of the population was forced to leave the republic and live in refugee camps in the regions neighboring Chechnya. First Chechen campaign ended with the signing on August 30, 1996 in the city of Khasavyurt of an agreement on the cessation of hostilities and the complete withdrawal of federal troops from the territory of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. After the withdrawal of Russian troops, Aslan Maskhadov became the head of Ichkeria. Soon the Sharia system of government was proclaimed in the republic. Instead of an independent state, Ichkeria became a place of concentration of gangs, chaos and complete anarchy reigned in the republic itself. The Khasavyurt agreements were violated by high-profile terrorist attacks, and after the invasion of Basayev gangs in August 1999 into the territory of neighboring Dagestan, the second stage of hostilities began in the Chechen Republic. By February 2000, the main phase of the combined-arms operation to destroy bandit formations was completed. In the summer of 2000, Akhmat-Khadzhi Kadyrov was appointed head of the Provisional Administration of the Chechen Republic. The difficult process of the revival of the Chechen Republic began. On March 23, 2003, a referendum was held in the Chechen Republic, in which the population overwhelmingly voted in favor of the Chechen Republic being part of the Russian Federation. A new Constitution of the Chechen Republic was adopted, laws on the election of the President and the Government of the Chechen Republic were approved. In autumn 2003, Akhmat-Khadzhi Kadyrov was elected the first President of the Chechen Republic. On May 9, 2004, A.A. Kadyrov died as a result of a terrorist act. On April 5, 2007, Ramzan Akhmatovich Kadyrov was approved as the President of the Chechen Republic. Under his direct leadership, dramatic changes took place in the Chechen Republic in a very short time. Political stability and security have been restored in the region, cities and villages of the republic, health care and education systems have been completely restored. Today the Chechen Republic is one of the most stable and dynamically developing regions of Russia.