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The development of the doctrine of temperament. The classical doctrine of temperament. Psychological characteristics of types of nervous activity and temperament An individual style of activity can be considered as the result of adaptation of the innate properties of the nervous system

2.1. The emergence of the doctrine of temperament. Humoral theories of temperament types

The doctrine of temperament and its types has a long history. It was founded by Hippocrates, who, using a humoral approach, identified four types of “krasis” (translated from Greek - “mixing”), i.e. the ratio of four fluids (juices) in the body: blood, yellow and black bile and mucus . Each liquid has its own properties (blood - heat, mucus - cold, yellow bile - dryness, black bile - moisture), and therefore the predominance of one of them determines the state of the body, its tendency to certain diseases.

The great scientist and physician of ancient Greece, Hippocrates was born in 460 BC. e. on the island of Kos. He came from a family whose members from generation to generation were engaged in the art of healing. Already at the age of 20, Hippocrates enjoyed the fame of an excellent doctor and became a priest. After an internship in Egypt, he returned to his native island and founded his own medical school there. Towards the end of his life, he moved to Thessaly, where he died, as they say, in 377 BC. e. For many years his grave was a place of pilgrimage.

The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who lived a little later than Hippocrates, saw the reason for the differences between people not in the predominance of one or another juice, but in the differences in the composition of the most important of them - blood. He noticed that blood coagulation in different animals is not the same. The faster one is due, in his opinion, to the predominance of solid or earthy particles, while the slower one is due to the predominance of water or liquid particles. Liquid blood is cold and predisposes to fear, while blood rich in dense substances is warm and gives rise to anger.

The influence of Aristotelian theory persisted for a very long time. Even Immanuel Kant in his work "Anthropology" (1798) correlated the type of temperament with the characteristics of blood: light-blooded, or sanguine; heavy-blooded, or melancholic; warm-blooded, or choleric (remember that a quick-tempered person is said to have “hot blood”); cold-blooded or phlegmatic.

In popular literature and textbooks, it is customary to consider Hippocrates the founder of the doctrine of four types of temperament, which has survived to this day - sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic and melancholic. However, this is not quite true. He really singled them out, but the names of these types themselves are associated with the names of Roman doctors who lived several centuries later and used Hippocrates' ideas about mixing liquids. They replaced the Greek word "krasis" with the Latin word temperamentum(“proper ratio of parts, proportionality”), from which the term “temperament” originates.

One of them, Galen (II century AD), gave the first detailed classification of temperaments, based on the same humoral ideas of Hippocrates about "krasis". It included 13 types, including those mentioned above. From his point of view, the predominance of yellow bile (lat. chole-"chole") testifies to the choleric temperament, blood (sanguis-"Sangvis") - about sanguine, black bile (melanos chole -"melanos chole") - about melancholic, and mucus (phlegma-"phlegm") - about the phlegmatic temperament. True, the psychological characteristics of these types of temperament in Galen were not rich, but over time it expanded more and more. So, Immanuel Kant considered the sanguine and melancholic types as temperaments of feeling, and the choleric and phlegmatic types as temperaments of action (from modern positions, the first two are characterized by increased emotionality, and the second - by increased activity). According to Kant, a sanguine person is a cheerful and carefree person, a melancholic person is gloomy and anxious, a choleric person is quick-tempered and active, but not for a long time, a phlegmatic person is cold-blooded and lazy.

In this regard, Wilhelm Wundt wrote that in the everyday joys and sorrows of life one must be a sanguine person, in important events of life - a melancholic person, regarding drives that affect our interests - a choleric person, and in performance decisions taken- phlegmatic. Unfortunately, this is completely impossible.

It should be noted that the concept of temperament in those days was significantly different from the present. Psychological characteristics were then almost absent. Basically, ancient doctors talked about the body and even about individual organs. For example, Galen spoke about the temperament of body parts - the heart, liver, brain.

The development of anatomy and physiology during the Renaissance led to innovations in the explanation of temperament types. They are increasingly associated with the structural features of the body. For example, a number of scientists, in addition to physical properties blood, laid the basis for the separation of the difference in tissues and the width of the lumen of the vessels. Light blood, loose tissues and moderately dilated vessels, according to these scientists, facilitate the course of life processes and give rise to a sanguine temperament. With a significant density in the tissues, the blood lingers in the vessels, the pulse becomes stronger and faster, the overall warmth of the body increases - this creates a choleric temperament. With dense blood and narrow vessels in the tissue, only a liquid, watery part of the blood appears, due to which a phlegmatic temperament is born. The person characterized by it has little warmth and pale skin color. Finally, dense, dark blood with narrow tissue pores and a wide lumen of the vessels leads to the formation of a melancholic temperament.

The famous Roman physician Claudius Galen was born in 130 in the city of Pergamon (Asia Minor).

He was the son of a well-rounded architect. At first he studied at a philosophical school in his native city, but a few years later he moved to Smyrna and began to study medicine there under the guidance of the famous physician Pelon. On his advice, he went to Alexandria, which at that time was the center of science and culture, to study the works of Hippocrates. In Alexandria, Galen fully mastered the art of medicine and, returning to Pergamum, became a doctor of gladiators. A few years later he moved to Rome, where he won universal respect and fame. There Galen wrote several treatises on medicine. By old age, he returned to Pergamon to continue his studies in peace and quiet. In this city he died in 200.

This theory was preserved in a somewhat modified form until the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. For example, P.F. Lesgaft (1910) believed that the latitude of the lumen and the thickness of the walls of the vessels play a very important role in the origin of temperaments: choleric people have a small lumen and thick walls, which leads to a fast and strong flow of blood; sanguine people have a small lumen and thin walls, which contributes to a fast and weak flow of blood, etc.

Another anatomical direction in explaining the types of temperament concerned the structure of the central nervous system, since it is the brain that is most closely associated with those mental characteristics that characterize various temperaments. Some saw the main basis of the latter in the size of the brain and the thickness of the nerves, others in the specifics of their functioning.

So, Albrecht Haller, the founder of experimental physiology, who introduced the concepts of excitability and sensitivity, important for physiology and psychology, argued that the main factor in differences in temperament is the excitability of the blood vessels themselves through which blood passes. His student G. Vrisberg connected temperament directly with the characteristics of the nervous system. In his opinion, choleric-sanguine is due to a large brain, "strong and thick nerves" and high excitability of the senses. People with a phlegmatic-melancholic temperament are characterized by a small brain, "thin nerves" and low excitability of the senses. The idea that the specificity of temperament is associated with certain anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nervous system can be traced in one way or another in the teachings of many philosophers, anatomists and doctors of the nineteenth century.

The anatomist I. Henle (J. Henle, 1876), well-known in his time, proposed an original and, admittedly, of interest at the present time theory of temperaments. It proceeded from the "tone" of the nervous and muscular systems (or, as they say now, the level of rest activation). From the point of view of this scientist, the tone of the nervous system in different people different. The larger it is, the easier a person is excited, the less surplus irritation is required in order to evoke in him the corresponding sensations, feelings or actions. A low degree of tone is characteristic of phlegmatic people - this is due to the general lethargy of their movements, emotional calmness, weakness of facial expressions, slowness of gait, etc. Due to the small motor activity they have a profuse exudation of nutrient fluids into the tissues of the body and a significant deposition of fat. Sanguine and choleric people are distinguished by mild excitability, however, in the former, the excitement passes as quickly as it arose, while in the latter it lasts longer, on which the constancy and depth of their feelings and perseverance of actions depend. The melancholy temperament is characterized, from Henle's point of view, by a mismatch between strong, deep feelings and a poorly developed propensity for activity.

Close to this theory is the attempt by the French philosopher A. Fouille (A. Fouille, 1901) to build a theory of temperaments based on the theory of metabolism in the body. What Henle calls the tone of the nervous system, according to Fulier, comes down to a greater or lesser intensity of the processes of decay and restoration of substances in the tissues of the body, especially in the central nervous system (i.e., to what is now called the intensity of metabolic processes). According to Fulier, in some cases, the processes of decay of energy sources predominate, in others, the processes of restoration. Accordingly, the sanguine temperament is characterized by a predominance of recovery, an excess of nutrition, a quick, but weak and short reaction. Melancholic (or nervous) - the predominance of the restoration of the nervous substance, its insufficient nutrition, a slow, but strong and prolonged reaction. The choleric temperament is characterized by a rapid and strong decay, while the phlegmatic temperament is characterized by a slow and weak decay of the nervous substance.

A number of scientists in our country also adhered to the humoral-endocrine theory of the origin of temperament types. P. P. Blonsky (1927) believed that the characteristics of human behavior depend on how balanced and coordinated the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system work. Vagotonics are slow and calm, not inclined to fantasize, they think soberly and realistically. Sympathicotonics, on the contrary, are impulsive, resolute, often carried away and detached from reality.

Attempts to build a classification of types of human behavior, taking into account the increased or decreased activity of individual endocrine glands, were made by N. A. Belov (1924), B. M. Zavadovsky (1928) and others. So, according to B. M. Zavadovsky, differences in temperaments are due to the interaction of the thyroid and adrenal glands: in a sanguine person their activity is high, in a phlegmatic person it is weak; in choleric - weak activity of the thyroid gland, but strong adrenal glands; the melancholic is the opposite.

Also known is the chemical theory of temperament, put forward in the 1920s. W. McDougall. It is directly adjacent to the ancient humoral concept. At the same time, the Japanese psychologist T. Furukawa pointed out that the main method for diagnosing temperament is the determination of the chemical composition of the blood.

What is temperament

The problem of temperament is one of the most developed problems in Soviet psychology. L. S. Vygotsky attributed to temperament the features of the warehouse of all innate and hereditary reactions, the hereditary constitution of a person. According to his ideas, temperament is that sphere of personality, which is found in the instinctive, emotional and reflex reactions of a person. L. S. Vygotsky singled out two main characteristics of temperament: 1) bodily expressiveness and 2) the nature and pace of movements.

IP Pavlov identified temperament with the type of nervous system. “Our types of nervous system,” he said, “is what the word “temperament” means,” and further: “Temperament is the most general characteristic of his nervous system, and this latter puts one or another stamp on all the activities of each individual” .

A more detailed definition of temperament is given by B. M. Teplov in 1946 in his textbook for secondary school: “Temperament is called individual characteristics person, expressed: 1) in emotional excitability ..., 2) in a greater or lesser tendency to a strong expression of feelings outside ..., 3) in the speed of movements, the general mobility of a person.

S. L. Rubinstein's ideas about temperament were reduced to emphasizing its dynamic characteristics, which, in his opinion, are expressed in impulsivity, tempo, strength, stability, tension, amplitude of oscillations, etc. of mental processes. At the same time, S. L. Rubinshtein emphasized that the dynamic characteristic of mental activity does not have a self-sufficient character; it depends on the content of the activity and the specific conditions of the activity, on the attitude towards these conditions and what he (the person) does.

B. G. Ananiev attributed to temperament those “individual characteristics of the organism”, which are determined by the activity of “motor organs, sensory organs and the entire neuro-brain apparatus”. He considered temperament as "a set of physiological and mental characteristics of a person." As the leading characteristics, he singled out the strength, speed and stability of mental processes. He considered the other most important indicators of temperament to be the sensitivity and impressionability of a person, the features of experiencing one's own actions and actions.

A similar idea of temperament was developed by N. D. Levitov. “Under temperament,” he writes, “we will understand that side of the personality, based on the innate type of higher nervous activity, which is expressed in emotional excitability (speed of suggestion, stability and brightness of emotions) and the pace of mental processes associated with this excitability” (V M. Rusalov, 1979, pp. 164–165).

2.2. Description of temperament types by I. Kant

Immanuel Kant (1966) gave a formal description of four types of temperament, which he divided into two groups. Sanguine and melancholic types were considered by him as temperaments of feeling, and choleric and phlegmatic - as temperaments of action. (From a modern point of view, the former can be associated with such a characteristic of temperament as emotionality, and the latter with activity.)

Sanguine was defined by I. Kant as a person of a cheerful disposition, who is a good conversationalist, knows how and loves to communicate, easily makes friends. Such a person is full of hope and faith in the success of all his undertakings. Carefree and superficial, can attach excessive importance to something and immediately forget about it forever. If upset, he does not experience deep negative emotions and is quickly comforted. Promises and does not keep his promises, because he does not think in advance whether he is able to fulfill them. This is a sinner: he sincerely repents of his deed, easily forgets about his repentance and sins again. His work quickly tires, and the activities to which he gives himself are more like a game for him than a serious matter.

The melancholic was characterized by I. Kant as a gloomy person. He is distrustful and full of doubts, ready to see in everything a cause for alarm and fear. He is wary of making promises, as he thinks through in detail all the difficulties associated with their fulfillment. He cannot break this word - it is unpleasant for him. He rarely has fun and does not like it when others have fun.

Choleric is a hot-tempered person. He is easily irritated and enraged, but just as easily retreats, especially if he is inferior. Very active; starting to do something, he acts energetically, but this fuse does not last long; he has no patience and endurance. Prefers to lead others. He is ambitious, loves to participate in various ceremonies, wants to be praised by everyone, therefore he surrounds himself with flatterers. His concern for other people and his generosity are ostentatious - he loves only himself. He tries to look smarter than he really is, and is constantly afraid that others will understand this. The choleric temperament, more than other types, causes opposition from others, therefore I. Kant believed that its owners are unfortunate people.

A phlegmatic person is a cold-blooded person who is not subject to affective outbursts. Its disadvantage is a tendency to inactivity (laziness) even in situations that urgently require activity. But, having started something to do, he necessarily brings it to the end. prudent, adheres to principles and is perceived as a wise man. Insensitive to attacks, does not offend the vanity of other people, and therefore accommodating. However, he can subjugate the will of other people to his will, and unnoticed by them. I. Kant considered this type of temperament to be the most successful.

2.3. W. Wundt's new approach to temperament

Gradually, scientists became more and more convinced that the properties of temperament are most clearly manifested in those forms of behavior that are directly related to the energy expenditure of the body - with the methods of accumulation and expenditure of energy and the quantitative characteristics of these processes. Therefore, most researchers of temperament paid attention primarily to the emotional and motor reactions of the individual, especially emphasizing their strength (intensity) and flow in time. A classic example of such an approach is the typology of temperaments proposed by W. Wundt (W. Wundt, 1893). He understood temperament as a predisposition to affect - this idea was expressed in the following thesis: temperament for emotion is the same as excitability for sensation.

Adhering to this view, W. Wundt singled out two bipolar properties of temperament: the strength and speed of change (stability - instability) of emotions, thereby emphasizing the importance of the individual's energy characteristics (see Table 2.1). Strong emotional reactions combined with emotional instability form a choleric temperament, a small strength of emotional reactions combined with their instability form a sanguine temperament, etc.

Wilhelm Wundt was born in 1832 in Germany.

Founder of experimental psychology. In 1879 he opened the world's first Institute of Experimental Psychology at the University of Leipzig. He has written more than 500 scientific articles and books on psychology, philosophy, and linguistics. Died 1920

Thus, W. Wundt moved away from a purely descriptive approach, highlighting two characteristics that can be measured. Therefore, the description of temperament types could now be based not only on observation of behavior and speculative conclusions, but also on objective data. He also expressed the important idea that each temperament has its positive and negative sides.

Table 2.1. Classification of temperaments (according to Wundt).

2.4. Constitutional Approach to Temperament

In a broad sense, the concept of the constitution covers all hereditary or congenital anatomical, physiological and mental properties of the individual.

Under the influence of anthropologists, who drew attention to differences in body structure, and psychiatrists, who emphasized individual differences in predisposition to mental illness, at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. a concept was formed, according to which there is a connection between the physique and the properties of temperament. This idea, which is widespread primarily among Italian, French and German researchers, received the most complete expression from the French physician Claude Sigo (S. Sigaud, 1904).

He created a typology based on the idea that the human body and its disorders depend on the environment and innate predispositions. Each system of the body corresponds to a certain external environment that affects it. Thus, air is the source of respiratory reactions; food that enters digestive system, forms a source of food reactions; motor reactions take place in the physical environment; the social environment causes various brain reactions. Based on this, K. Seago distinguishes - depending on the predominance of one of the systems in the body - four main body types: respiratory, digestive, muscular and cerebral (Fig. 2.1).

The predominance of any one system over the others leads to a specific reaction of the individual to certain changes in the environment, due to which each of the body types corresponds to certain features of temperament. Viola, having identified three types of constitution, made them dependent on the length of the limbs and the size of the internal organs. P. P. Blonsky divided people, based on body size, into two groups: “soft and raw” and “dry and hard”. The former, in his opinion, are affective, absent-minded, suggestible; the latter are intelligent, independent, have good attention, and are cruel. The views of C. Seago, as well as some other concepts of that time, linking the physique with the mental characteristics of the body, had a significant impact on the formation of modern constitutional theories that have become widespread in the psychology of temperament.

Among them, especially popular were those in which the properties of temperament, understood as hereditary or innate, were directly associated with individual differences in physique - height, fullness or proportions.

Rice. 2.1. Body types (according to K. Seago): a - respiratory, b - digestive, c - muscular, d - cerebral.

E. Kretschmer's constitutional typology

The main ideologist of constitutional typology was the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer, who published in 1921 a work entitled "Body structure and character" (in Russian translation, the book was published in 1924, the last reprint - 1995). He drew attention to the fact that each of the two types of diseases - manic-depressive (circular) psychosis and schizophrenia - corresponds to a certain type of physique. This allowed him to argue that body type determines the mental characteristics of people and their predisposition to the corresponding mental illnesses. Numerous clinical observations prompted E. Kretschmer to undertake systematic studies of the structure of the human body. Having made many measurements of its various parts, the author identified four constitutional types.

1. Leptosomatic(gr. leptos-"fragile", soma-"body"). It has a cylindrical body, a fragile physique, high growth, a flat chest, an elongated egg-shaped face (full face). A long thin nose and an undeveloped lower jaw form the so-called angular profile. The shoulders of a leptosomatic are narrow, the lower limbs are long, the bones and muscles are thin. E. Kretschmer called individuals with extreme severity of these features asthenics (Greek. astenos-"weak").

2. Picnic(gr. pγκnos-"thick, dense"). He is characterized by excessive obesity, small or medium stature, a swollen torso, a large belly, a round head on a short neck. Relatively large perimeters of the body (head, chest and abdomen) with narrow shoulders give the body a barrel-shaped shape. People of this type are prone to stoop.

3. Athletic(gr. athlon-"struggle, fight"). It has good musculature, a strong physique, high or medium height, a wide shoulder girdle and narrow hips, which is why the frontal view of the body forms a trapezoid. The fat layer is not expressed. The face is in the form of an elongated egg, the lower jaw is well developed.

4. Dysplastic(gr. dγs-"bad", plastos-"formed"). Its structure is shapeless, irregular. Individuals of this type are characterized by various body deformations (for example, excessive growth).

The selected types do not depend on the height of a person and his thinness. It's about about proportions, and not about the absolute dimensions of the body. There can be fat leptosomatics, puny athletics, and skinny picnics.

Ernst Kretschmer was born in 1888 in Germany. He was the director of the neurological clinic in Marburg, the head of the clinic at the University of Tübingen. In 1939 he refused to take the post of president of the German Psychiatric Association, expressing disagreement with the theory of racial inferiority, preached by the official psychiatry of Nazi Germany. Died 1964

Most patients with schizophrenia, according to E. Kretschmer, are leptosomatic, although there are also athletics. Picnics, on the other hand, form the largest group among patients with cyclophrenia (manic-depressive psychosis) (Fig. 2.2). Athletes, who are less prone to mental illness than others, show some tendency to epilepsy.

E. Kretschmer suggested that in healthy people there is a similar relationship between physique and psyche. According to the author, they carry within themselves the germ of mental illness, being to a certain extent predisposed to it. People with a particular type of physique develop mental properties similar to those that are characteristic of the corresponding mental illnesses, although in a less pronounced form. So, for example, a healthy person with a leptosomatic physique has properties that resemble the behavior of a schizophrenic; picnic in his behavior shows features typical of manic-depressive psychosis. Athletics is characterized by some mental properties that resemble the behavior of patients with epilepsy.

Rice. 2.2. The distribution of mental illness depending on the type of physique (according to E. Kretschmer).

Depending on the tendency to different emotional reactions, E. Kretschmer identified two large groups of people. The emotional life of some is characterized by a dyadic scale (i.e., their characteristic moods can be represented as a scale, the poles of which are “cheerful - sad”). Representatives of this group have a cyclothymic type of temperament. The emotional life of other people is characterized by a psycho-aesthetic scale (“sensitive – emotionally dull, unexcitable”). These people have a schizothymic temperament.

Schizothymic(this name comes from "schizophrenia") has a leptosomatic or asthenic physique. With a mental disorder, it reveals a predisposition to schizophrenia. Closed, prone to fluctuations in emotions - from irritability to dryness, stubborn, inflexible to change attitudes and views. With difficulty adapts to the environment, prone to abstraction.

Cyclothymic(the name is associated with circular, or manic-depressive, psychosis) - the opposite of schizotimic. Has a picnic physique. In violation of the psyche reveals a predisposition to manic-depressive psychosis. Emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness. Easily contacts with the environment, realistic in views. E. Kretschmer also singled out a viscose (mixed) type.

Dependence between body type and some mental properties or, in extreme cases, mental illness E. Kretschmer explained that both the type of body structure and temperament have the same reason: they are due to the activity of the endocrine glands and the chemical composition of the blood associated with it, thus Chemical properties depend largely on certain features of the hormonal system.

Carried out by E. Kretschmer, a comparison of body type with emotional types of response gave a high percentage of coincidence (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2. Relationship between body structure and temperament, % (E. Kretschmer, 1995).

Depending on the type of emotional reactions, the author distinguishes cheerful and sad cyclothymics and sensitive or cold schizothymics.

Temperaments. They, as we firmly empirically know, are due to the humoral chemistry of the blood. Their bodily representative is the apparatus of the brain and glands. Temperaments constitute that part of the mental, which, probably along the humoral path, is in correlation with the structure of the body. Temperaments, giving sensual tones, delaying and stimulating, penetrate into the mechanism of "mental apparatuses". Temperaments, as far as it is possible to establish empirically, obviously have an influence on the following mental qualities:

1) psychesthesia - excessive sensitivity or insensitivity in relation to mental stimuli;

2) on the coloring of mood - a shade of pleasure and displeasure in mental contents, primarily on the scale of cheerful or sad;

3) on the mental pace - acceleration or delay of mental processes in general and their special rhythm (tenaciously holding, unexpectedly jumping off, delay, formation of complexes);

4) on the psychomotor sphere, namely on the general motor pace (moving or phlegmatic), as well as on the special nature of movements (paralytic, fast, slender, soft, rounded) (E. Kretschmer, 2000, p. 200).

The theory of temperament by E. Kretschmer has become widespread in our country. Moreover, it seemed to some (for example, MP Andreev, 1930) that the question of the relationship between the physique and the mental make-up of a person was finally resolved. As proof of the correctness of Kretschmer's theory, P. P. Blonsky referred to the work of a professor of livestock breeding, who gave a description of "dry and wet" breeds of horses, pigs, cows and sheep. In this regard, P. P. Blonsky considered human “biotypes” as special cases of the manifestation of common biotypes of the animal world.

Soon, however, disappointment set in, as attempts to reproduce the results described by E. Kretschmer showed that most people cannot be classified as extreme options. Relationships between body type and features of emotional response did not reach the level of reliability. Critics began to say that it was unlawful to extend the patterns identified in pathology to the norm.

Constitutional typology of W. Sheldon

Somewhat later, the concept of temperament, put forward by W. Sheldon (W. H. Sheldon, S. S. Stevens, 1942), which was formulated in the 1940s, gained popularity in the USA. The basis of Sheldon's ideas, whose typology is close to Kretschmer's concept, is the assumption that the structure of the body determines the temperament that acts as its function. But this dependence is masked due to the complexity of our organism and psyche, and therefore it is possible to reveal the connection between the physical and the mental by highlighting such physical and mental properties that most demonstrate such a dependence.

W. Sheldon proceeded from the hypothesis of the existence of the main body types, which he described, using a specially developed photographic technique and complex anthropometric measurements. Evaluating each of the 17 measurements he identified on a 7-point scale, the author came to the concept of somatotype (body type), which can be described using three main parameters. Borrowing terms from embryology, he called these parameters as follows: endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy. Depending on the predominance of any of them (a score of 1 point corresponds to the minimum intensity, 7 points to the maximum), W. Sheldon identified the following body types.

1. Endomorphic(7–1–1). The name is due to the fact that mainly internal organs are formed from the endoderm, and in people of this type, their excessive development is just observed. The physique is relatively weak, with an excess of adipose tissue.

2. mesomorphic(1–7–1). Representatives of this type have a well-developed muscular system, which is formed from the mesoderm. A slender, strong body, the opposite of the baggy and flabby body of an endomorph. The mesomorphic type has great mental stability and strength. 3. ectomorphic(1‑1‑7). From the ectoderm develops the skin and nervous tissue. The body is fragile and thin, the chest is flattened. Relatively weak development of internal organs and physique. The limbs are long, thin, with weak muscles. The nervous system and senses are relatively poorly protected.

If the individual parameters are expressed in the same way, the author attributed this individual to the mixed (medium) type, evaluating it as 1‑4‑4.

As a result of many years of research on healthy, normally eating people of different ages, W. Sheldon came to the conclusion that certain types of temperament correspond to these body types.

He studied 60 psychological properties, and his main attention was paid to those properties that are associated with the characteristics of extraversion - introversion. They were evaluated, as in the case of the somatotype, on a 7-point scale. Using correlation, three groups of properties were identified, named after the functions of certain organs of the body:

- viscerotonia (lat. viscera-"insides")

- somatotonia (gr. soma-"body"),

- cerebrotonia (lat. segebgit -"brain").

In accordance with this, he identified three types of human temperament:

- viscerotonics (7‑1‑1),

– somatotonics (1‑7‑1),

- cerebrotonics (1‑1‑7).

According to W. Sheldon, each person has all three named groups of physical and mental properties. The predominance of one or another of these determines the differences between people. Like E. Kretschmer, W. Sheldon claims that there is a great correspondence between body type and temperament. So, in persons with the dominant qualities of an endomorphic physique, the properties of temperament related to viscerotonia are expressed. The mesomorphic type correlates with the somatotonic type, and the ectomorphic type correlates with the cerebrotonic type. The ratio of body types with their characteristic properties of temperament is shown in fig. 2.3 and in table. 2.3.

Rice. 2.3. Body types (according to W. Sheldon).

Table 2.3. Types of temperament and their characteristics (according to W. Sheldon).

Krechmer's approach to temperament found supporters among psychiatrists, teachers and psychologists in our country. One of them, K. N. Kornilov (1929), associated body type with the speed and intensity of human reactions. On these grounds, he singled out four types of people: - motor-active (quickly and strongly responsive);

- motor-passive (reacting quickly, but weakly);

- sensory-active (reacting slowly and strongly);

- sensory-passive (reacting slowly and weakly).

Here, for example, is how he described the sensory-passive type.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

SEI HPE "MARI STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY"

Department of History and Psychology

Essay on psychology on the topic "Basic teachings about temperament"

Completed: st.gr.SRb-21, Sharnina A.B

Checked by: Ph.D., Associate Professor, Petrukhina S.R.

Introduction…………………………………………………………3-4

1. The concept of temperament…………………………………………..5-7

2. Basic teachings about temperament.

2.1. Physiological theory of temperaments of Hippocrates ... ... 8-11

2.2. Neurotic theory of temperaments by I.P. Pavlov…….12-15

2.3 Theories of temperaments by E. Kretschmer and W. Sheldon………..16-19

2.4. I.Kant's theory of temperaments……………………………....20-21

Conclusion………………………………………………………22-24

References……………………………………………...25

Appendix………………………………………………………....26-28

Introduction

As you know, there are no people on earth with the same skin patterns on their fingers, there are no completely identical leaves on a tree. Similarly, in nature there are no absolutely identical human personalities - the personality of each person is unique.

However, a person is not born as an already established personality. He becomes it gradually. But even before a person becomes a person, he has individual characteristics of the psyche. These features of the psyche are very conservative, stable. They form in each person a kind of psychic soil, on which subsequently, depending on its characteristics, personality traits inherent only to this person grow. This means that the child's psyche is not like a smooth board where you can write any patterns, and that in the process of raising and teaching a child, one must rely on the properties that he has from birth. These properties are different for everyone. Observing the behavior of students, how they work, study and rest, how they react to external influences, how they experience joys and sorrows, we undoubtedly pay attention to the great individual differences of people. Some are fast, impetuous, noisy - others, on the contrary, are slow, calm, imperturbable. It should be noted that these differences do not relate to the content of the personality, but to some external manifestations. This side characterizes the concept of "temperament".

The famous psychologist Merlin wrote: “Imagine two rivers - one is calm, flat, the other is swift, mountainous. The course of the first is barely noticeable, it smoothly carries its waters, it does not have bright splashes, stormy waterfalls and splashes. The second one is the complete opposite. The river rushes quickly, the water in it rumbles, boils and, hitting the stones, turns into shreds of foam ... ". Something similar can be observed in the behavior of people.

Observations have shown that all people are different not only in appearance, but also in behavior and movements. For example, if you follow the behavior of students in the classroom, you can immediately notice the difference in the behavior, movements of each. Some have slow, correct movements, a noticeable calmness in their eyes, while others have sharp movements, vanity in their eyes. What explains this difference in behavior? First of all, temperament, which is manifested in any kind of activity (playing, working, educational, creative), in gait, gestures, in all behavior. Individual psychological characteristics of a person's personality, his temperament give a peculiar coloring to all activities and behavior.

Temperament should be understood as the natural features of behavior that are typical for a given person and manifested in the dynamics, tone and balance of reactions to life influences. Temperament colors all the mental manifestations of the individual, it affects the nature of the flow of emotions and thinking, volitional influence, affects the pace and rhythm of speech. But it must be remembered that neither interests, nor hobbies, nor social attitudes, nor moral upbringing of a person depend on temperament. The above examples lead to an understanding that temperament is a behavioral category, which is a set of formal, dynamic characteristics of behavior. In this case, they mean, first of all, the energy level of behavior. Scientists identify a large number of the most diverse properties of temperament, including impulsivity, anxiety, plasticity, emotional excitability, strength of emotions, reactivity, and much more. But the main two characteristics of temperament are considered - this is general activity and emotionality.

1.The concept of temperament

Temperament is one of the most significant personality traits. Interest in this problem arose more than two and a half thousand years ago. It was caused by the obvious existence of individual differences, which are due to the peculiarities of the biological and physiological structure and development of the organism, as well as the peculiarities of social development, the uniqueness of social ties and contacts. The biologically determined personality structures include, first of all, temperament. Temperament determines the presence of many mental differences between people, including the intensity and stability of emotions, emotional impressionability, the pace and vigor of actions, as well as a number of other dynamic characteristics.

Temperament should be understood as a set of typological features of a person, manifested in the dynamics of his psychological processes: in the speed and strength of his reaction, in the emotional tone of his life.

Temperament is a manifestation in the human psyche of an innate type of nervous activity. Consequently, the properties of temperament include, first of all, the innate and individually peculiar properties of a person. What is their uniqueness? Imagine two rivers - one calm, flat, the other - swift, mountainous. The course of the first is barely noticeable, it smoothly carries its waters, it does not have bright splashes, stormy waterfalls, dazzling splashes. The course of the other river is the exact opposite. The river rushes quickly, its water rumbles, boils and, hitting the stones, turns into foam. The features of the flow of these rivers depend on a number of natural conditions.

Something similar can be observed in the dynamics of mental activity of different people. In some people, mental activity proceeds evenly. Such people outwardly are always calm, balanced and even slow. They rarely laugh, their eyes are always strict and hungry. Getting into difficult situations or funny situations, these people remain outwardly unperturbed. Their facial expressions and gestures do not differ in variety and expressiveness, their speech is calm, their gait is firm. In other people, psychological activity proceeds spasmodically. They are very mobile, restless, noisy. Their speech is impetuous and passionate, their movements are chaotic, their facial expressions are varied and rich. Often such people wave their hands and stomp their feet when talking. They are fussy and impatient. The properties of temperament are those natural properties that determine the dynamic side of a person's mental activity. In other words, the nature of the course of mental activity depends on temperament, namely: 1) the rate of occurrence of mental processes and their stability (for example, the speed of perception, quickness of mind, duration of concentration of attention) 2) mental rhythm and pace, 3) the intensity of mental processes (for example , the strength of emotions, the activity of the will) 4) the orientation of mental activity to some specific objects (for example, a person’s constant desire for contacts with new people, for new impressions of reality or a person’s appeal to himself, to his ideas and images).

Also, the dynamics of mental activity depends on motives and mental state. Any person, regardless of the characteristics of his temperament, with interest, works more energetically and faster than without it. For any person, a joyful event causes a rise in mental and physical strength, and misfortune causes their fall.

On the contrary, the properties of temperament manifest themselves in the same way in the most diverse types of activity and for the most diverse purposes. For example, if a student is worried before passing a test, shows anxiety before a lesson at school during teaching practice, is in anxious anticipation of a start in sports competitions, this means that high anxiety is a property of his temperament. The properties of temperament are the most stable and constant in comparison with other mental characteristics of a person. Various properties of temperament are naturally interconnected, forming a certain organization, a structure that characterizes the type of temperament.

Despite the fact that repeated and constant attempts have been made to investigate the problem of temperament, this problem still belongs to the category of controversial and not completely resolved problems of modern psychological science. Today there are many approaches to the study of temperament. However, with all the existing variety of approaches, most researchers recognize that temperament is the biological foundation on which a person is formed as a social being, and personality traits due to temperament are the most stable and long-term.

2.1.Physiological theory of temperaments of Hippocrates.

The idea and doctrine of temperaments in its origins goes back to the works of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (5th century BC). He argued that people differ in the ratio of 4 main “body juices” - blood (from the Latin sanguis), phlegm (from the Greek phlegma), yellow bile (from the Greek chole) and black bile (from the Greek melaina) - included in its composition. The predominance of one of them determines the temperament of a person. The names of temperaments given by the name of liquids have survived to this day. Each liquid has a special property and a special purpose. The property of blood is warmth. Its purpose is to warm the body. The property of phlegm is cold, and the purpose is to cool the body. The property of yellow bile is dryness. Purpose to maintain dryness in the body, "dry it." The property of black bile is dampness. Its purpose is to maintain dampness, moisture in the body. He described the main types of temperaments, which are widely known in our time.

Types of temperaments according to Hippocrates:

melancholic - a person with a weak nervous system, who is hypersensitive even to weak stimuli, and a strong stimulus can already cause a “breakdown”, “stopper”, confusion, “rabbit stress”, therefore, in stressful situations (exam, competition, danger, etc.) ) the results of the melancholic's activities may worsen compared to a calm, familiar situation. Hypersensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and a drop in performance (longer rest is required). An insignificant occasion can cause resentment, tears. The mood is very changeable, but usually the melancholic tries to hide, not to show his feelings outwardly, does not talk about his experiences, although he is very inclined to give himself up to experiences, often sad, depressed, insecure, anxious, he may experience neurotic disorders. However, having a high sensitivity of the nervous system, they often have pronounced artistic and intellectual abilities.

Sanguine - a person with a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system, has a quick reaction rate, his actions are deliberate, he is cheerful, due to which he is characterized by high resistance to the difficulties of life. The mobility of his nervous system determines the variability of feelings, attachments, interests, views, high adaptability to new conditions. This is a sociable person, easily converges with new people and therefore he has a wide circle of acquaintances, although he does not differ in constancy in communication and affection. He is a productive figure, but only when there are many interesting things to do, that is, with constant excitement, otherwise he becomes boring, lethargic, distracted. In a stressful situation, he shows a "lion's reaction", that is, he actively, deliberately defends himself, fights for the normalization of the situation.

Phlegmatic - a person with a strong, balanced, but inert nervous system, as a result of which he reacts slowly, is taciturn, emotions appear slowly (it is difficult to anger, cheer); has a high capacity for work, well resists strong and prolonged stimuli, difficulties, but is not able to quickly respond to unexpected new situations. He firmly remembers everything he has learned, is not able to abandon the developed skills and stereotypes, does not like to change habits, life routines, work, friends, it is difficult and slow to adapt to new conditions. The mood is stable, even. In case of serious troubles, the phlegmatic person remains outwardly calm.

Choleric- this is a person whose nervous system is determined by the predominance of excitation over inhibition, as a result of which he reacts very quickly, often thoughtlessly, does not have time to slow down, restrain himself, shows impatience, impulsiveness, sharpness of movements, irascibility, unbridledness, incontinence. The imbalance of his nervous system predetermines the cyclicity in the change of his activity and vigor: carried away by some business, he passionately works with full dedication, but he does not have enough strength for long, and as soon as they are exhausted, he is being worked out to the point that everything is unbearable for him. An irritable state appears Bad mood, loss of strength and lethargy (“everything falls out of hand”). The alternation of positive cycles of raising mood and energy with negative cycles of decline, depression causes uneven behavior and well-being, its increased susceptibility to the emergence of neurotic breakdowns and conflicts with people.

Each of the presented types of temperament in itself is neither good nor bad (if you do not connect temperament and character). Manifested in the dynamic features of the psyche and human behavior, each type of temperament can have advantages and disadvantages. People of sanguine temperament have a quick reaction, easily and quickly adapt to changing conditions of life, have increased efficiency, especially in the initial period of work, but at the end they reduce efficiency due to rapid fatigue and a drop in interest. On the contrary, those who are characterized by a temperament of the melancholic type are distinguished by a slow entry into work, but also a greater endurance. Their performance is usually higher in the middle or towards the end of work, and not at the beginning. In general, the productivity and quality of work for sanguine and melancholic people are approximately the same, and the differences mainly relate only to the dynamics of work in its different periods.

The choleric temperament has the merit of concentrating considerable efforts in a short space of time. But during long-term work, a person with such a temperament does not always have enough endurance. Phlegmatic , on the contrary, they are not able to quickly assemble and concentrate their efforts, but instead they have the valuable ability to work long and hard to achieve their goal. The type of human temperament must be taken into account where the work makes special demands on the specified dynamic features of the activity.

Hippocrates' classification of temperaments refers to humoral theories. Later, this line was proposed by the German philosopher I. Kant, who also considered the characteristics of blood to be the natural basis of temperament.

2.2.Neurological theory of temperament types I.P. Pavlova.

According to I.P. Pavlov, temperaments are the "main features" of a person's individual characteristics.

IP Pavlov, studying the features of the development of conditioned reflexes in dogs, drew attention to individual differences in their behavior and in the course of conditioned reflex activity. These differences manifested themselves primarily in such aspects of behavior as the speed and accuracy of the formation of conditioned reflexes, as well as in the features of their fading. This circumstance made it possible to put forward the hypothesis that these differences cannot be explained only by the variety of experimental situations and that they are based on some fundamental properties of nervous processes. According to Pavlov, these properties include the strength of excitation, inhibition, their balance and mobility.

Pavlov distinguished between the force of excitation and the force of inhibition, considering them to be two independent properties of the nervous system. The strength of excitation reflects the performance of the nerve cell. It manifests itself in functional endurance, i.e. in the ability of the nervous system to withstand prolonged (or short-term, but strong) excitation without passing into the opposite state of inhibition. The strength of inhibition is understood as the performance of the nervous system in the implementation of inhibition and is manifested in the ability to form various inhibitory reactions, such as extinction and differentiation.

Types of temperament I.P. Pavlova are built on the basis of types of the nervous system. I.P. Pavlov showed that the basis of higher nervous activity is three components: strength (the individual maintains a high level of performance during long and hard work, quickly recovers, does not respond to weak stimuli), balance (the individual remains calm in an exciting environment, easily suppresses his inadequate desires ) and mobility (the individual quickly responds to changes in the situation, easily acquires new skills). The combination of these components, according to Pavlov, provides an explanation for the classical temperaments of Hippocrates:
- sanguine - strong, balanced, mobile type of higher
nervous activity;
- choleric - a strong, unbalanced, mobile type of higher nervous
activities;
- phlegmatic - a strong, balanced, inert type of higher nervous
activities;
- melancholic - weak, unbalanced, inert type of higher
nervous activity.

So, choleric and sanguine people have a more active temperament, while melancholic and phlegmatic people are somewhat passive. The most lively and mobile people are choleric and sanguine. Moreover, the choleric is the most unbalanced of them, and this is clearly seen by the fact that he is unbalanced both externally and internally. Sanguine is internally balanced, although outwardly it can be very emotional. The melancholic, on the contrary, is unbalanced internally, although outwardly this does not always manifest itself. Belonging to one of the four temperamental groups can be determined by the reaction that manifests itself in him to an obstacle that has arisen in his path:
choleric sweeps away the obstacle;

Sanguine bypasses;

The phlegmatic often does not even notice;

The melancholic stops before an obstacle.

Usually, there are practically no pure temperaments. Each person has a combination of two temperaments, one of which is the main one, and the other is additional. But the constant manifestation of only the main and additional temperament is the exception rather than the rule. Each personality contains all four temperaments, but in different proportions. Each of them comes to the fore, depending on the situation.

The main, leading temperament manifests itself at a close psychological distance (in a familiar environment, with loved ones) in a comfortable psychological atmosphere.
Additional temperament is more clearly manifested in a tense and (or) conflict situation. For example, protecting your personal interests, defending your opinion, etc.
The third type of temperament manifests itself in an official setting, at a far psychological distance (in relation to management, subordinates or partners from other organizations, simply unfamiliar
people). This type of temperament can be called role-playing, because. a person in such a situation is bound by conventions, and, adapting to society, plays a certain social role.
The fourth type of temperament, manifests itself most rarely. As a short-term reaction to stressful situations (company collapse and unexpected dismissal, serious illness or death loved one, any natural disaster: fire, flood, etc.).

The type of the nervous system, although determined by heredity, is not absolutely unchanged. With age, as well as under the influence of systematic training, education, life circumstances, nervous processes may weaken or intensify, their switching may accelerate or slow down. For example, among children, choleric and sanguine people predominate (they are energetic, cheerful, easily and strongly excited; crying, after a minute they can be distracted and laugh joyfully, that is, there is a high mobility of nervous processes). Among the elderly, on the contrary, there are many phlegmatic and melancholic people.

Thus, under the type of the nervous system, Pavlov understood the properties of the nervous system that are innate and relatively weakly subject to changes under the influence of the environment and upbringing.

The role of Pavlov's research in the development of modern science is extremely great. However, his discovery of the properties of the nervous system and the typology of the nervous system developed on this basis served as the basis for his assertion that all human behavior, like animal behavior, can be explained from the position of physiology.

This point of view is strong in our time and is often found among physiologists and doctors, but it is not true. Human behavior is very complex and is determined not only by innate characteristics, but also by the conditions of the social situation, as well as by the characteristics of education.

2.3 Theory of temperament types by E. Kretschmer and W. Sheldon

A special place among the theories under consideration is occupied by those according to which temperament, being a hereditary and innate property, is associated with individual differences in physique - the shape of the body, its proportions, height, weight, and the amount of body fat. In the 20s of the twentieth century, E. Kretschmer's book "Body Structure and Character", which later became famous, was published. Like many effective psychological interpretations, this concept arose as a result of clinical research on the analysis mental disorders. First of all, E. Kretschmer was interested in the problem of people's predisposition to various types of psychoses. Observing patients suffering from manic-depressive disorders and schizophrenia, the researcher drew attention, among other signs, to the peculiarities of the body structure of these people.

Kretschmer identified three types of constitution (the names of which were derived from the corresponding Greek words):

- leptosomatic(leptos - fragile, soma - body) - fragile physique, tall, flat chest, elongated face;

- picnic(pyknos - dense, thick) - significant body fat, obesity, small or medium stature, blurred body shapes, large belly, round head on a short neck;

- athletic ( athlon - wrestling, fight) - a strong body with well-developed muscles, high or medium height, wide shoulder girdle and narrow hips, convex facial bones.

Observing the behavior of people with different physiques in a clinic, E. Kretschmer drew attention to four groups of mental qualities associated with temperament. Here is a short list of these qualities:

1) psychasthesia - excessive sensitivity or insensitivity to mental stimuli;

2) mood background - a shade of pleasure or displeasure in mental experiences, marked on a scale of cheerful-sad;

3) mental pace - acceleration or delay of mental processes in general and their special rhythm;

4) general motor tempo or psychomotor sphere - mobility or lethargy, a special nature of movements (fast, soft, rounded, etc.).

Thus, having connected the concept of temperament with affectivity and general mental tempo, E. Kretschmer described three types of temperament corresponding to constitutional types:

1) schizothymic (characteristic of a leptosomatic or asthenic physique) - isolation up to autism, fluctuations in emotions from irritation to dryness, stubbornness, low yielding to persuasion and changing attitudes, difficulties in adapting to the environment, a tendency to abstraction. With mental disorders, a predisposition to schizophrenia is found;

2) cyclothymic (corresponding to a picnic physique) - the opposite of schizothymic, easily in contact with the environment, emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, cheerfulness and gloominess. In some cycloids, the center of these oscillations is directed to the hypomanic pole, in others - to the depressive one. In mental disorders, a tendency to circular or manic-depressive psychosis is found;

3) ixothymic (Greek ixos - viscous) - characteristic of an athletic physique. Ixothymic is calm, unimpressive, has restrained gestures and facial expressions, low flexibility of thinking, it is difficult to adapt to a change in the situation. With mental disorders, it shows a predisposition to epilepsy.

E. Kretschmer saw the connection between physique and temperament, like many before him, in the conditionality of these parameters by the chemical composition of the blood, which affects the characteristics of the hormonal system.

A review of the constitutional-typological theories of temperament would be incomplete without the name of another researcher - the American psychologist William Sheldon, who formulated the somatotypic concept of temperament. It is important to note that this theory did not originate in the clinic or in psychiatric practice. In addition, the classification was based not on discrete "types", but on continuously distributed "components" of physique.

Endomorphic(with a large belly, a lot of fat deposits on the shoulders and hips, weak limbs) tends to viscerotonia(from lat. viscera - insides). He is sociable and flexible, friendly, loves comfort. It is easy for him to express his feelings. In difficult times, he strives for people. He does not like tension, and in a state of intoxication becomes sensitive and soft.

mesomorphic(characterized by a powerful build, a chest with a wheel, having a square head, wide palms and feet) is prone to somatotonia(from lat. soma - body). This person is restless and often aggressive, adventurous. He is quite secretive in feelings and thoughts. In posture and actions, he expresses confidence, he seeks to solve difficult life situations behaviorally, through changing the world around him. In a state of intoxication, persistent to the point of obsession and aggressive.

ectomorphic(thin and tall, has a weak development of internal organs, a thin face, a narrow chest, thin long limbs) usually differs cerebrotonia(from lat. cerebrum - brain). This person is inhibited and introverted, unsociable, secretive. There is a sense of stiffness in his posture. In difficult situations, he is prone to solitude. The most productive and happy for him is usually the later period of life. Under the influence of alcohol, he practically does not change his usual behavior and state.

2.4. Theory of temperaments by I. Kant

Immanuel Kant in 1966 gave a formal description of the four types of temperament, which he divided into two groups. Sanguine and melancholic types were considered by him as temperaments of feeling, and choleric and phlegmatic - as temperaments of action. (From a modern point of view, the former can be associated with such a characteristic of temperament as emotionality, and the latter with activity.)

A phlegmatic person is a cold-blooded person who is not subject to affective outbursts. Its disadvantage is a tendency to inactivity (laziness) even in situations that urgently require activity. But, having started something to do, he necessarily brings it to the end. Prudent, adheres to principles and is perceived as a wise person. Insensitive to attacks, does not offend the vanity of other people, and therefore accommodating. However, he can subjugate the will of other people to his will, and unnoticed by them. I. Kant considered this type of temperament to be the most successful.

Conclusion

The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived in the 5th century BC. Temperament meant both anatomical and physiological and individual psychological characteristics of a person. He believed that temperament was a violation in the proportion of four fluids in the body: blood, lymph, bile and black bile. Hence the names of four types of temperament subsequently arose - sanguine, choleric, melancholic and phlegmatic, which have survived to this day.

The lack of necessary knowledge did not allow at that time to give a truly scientific basis for the doctrine of temperaments, and only studies of the higher nervous activity of animals and humans, conducted by I.P. Pavlov, established that the physiological basis of temperament is a combination of the basic properties of nervous processes.

According to the teachings of IP Pavlov, the individual characteristics of behavior, the dynamics of the course of mental activity depend on individual differences in the activity of the nervous system. The basis of individual differences in nervous activity is the manifestation and correlation of the properties of the two main nervous processes - excitation and inhibition. Features of a person's mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person's individual life, in the process of education. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to human behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the whole appearance of a person - determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine either the behavior, or actions of a person, or his beliefs, or moral principles.

The German philosopher Kant at the end of the 18th century characterizes temperament only as mental properties. I. Kant in the book "Reflections on the Sense of Beauty" wrote that the phlegmatic is distinguished by a "lack of moral sense", and the melancholic is more than anyone else, inherent in "genuine virtue", the sense of beauty is most developed in the sanguine person, and the sense of honor - in the choleric . And until modern times, the characteristic of temperament remained predominantly psychological. In connection with these, the concept of types of temperament changes. They are characterized by a proportion of not physiological, but psychological properties. For Kant, this is the ratio of different feelings and different degrees of activity. Naturally, both the characteristics of the main types of temperament and the idea of the number of types change. The same words - "sanguine", "choleric", "phlegmatic" and "melancholic" - different psychologists denoted completely different characteristics. Starting with Kant, they began to distinguish the properties of temperament from other individual properties of the personality's character. However, for a long time no strict and precise criterion for such a distinction was proposed.

Finally, in the history of the doctrine of temperament, the understanding of its physiological foundations has changed. Of greatest importance is the struggle of two main directions - the explanation of the types of temperament by the ratio of the activity of the endocrine glands (German psychologist Kretschmer, American - Sheldon) or the ratio of the properties of the nervous system (I.P. Pavlov).

Acquaintance with the concept and theory of temperaments allows not only to satisfy cognitive interest. Knowledge in this area is necessary for the professional activities of a teacher when choosing an individual approach to the learning process, for managers at all levels when building tactics for business relationships with subordinates, when choosing a profession, as well as in professional selection, when communicating people with each other, a client with a social worker , in the development of professional skills, etc.

Literature:

1. Rubinstein S. L. // Fundamentals of General Psychology // St. Petersburg: Publishing House "Piter", 2000.

2. Kretschmer E. Theory of temperaments. // Psychology of individual differences. Reader. M., 2000.

3.I. Kant. About temperament//Psychology of individual differences. Texts. M., 1982.

4. W. Sheldon. Psychology of individual differences. Texts / Ed. Yu.B.Gippenreiter, V.Ya.Romanova. M., 1982.

5.V.S. Merlin, Essay on the Theory of Temperament, 1973.

6. Klimov E.A. Individual style of activity // Psychology of individual differences: Texts. - M., 1982.

7. Pastelov I.G. Temperament through the eyes of an inhabitant // Life and health. - M., 2001.

8. Ilyin E.P. Psychology of individual differences. - St. Petersburg, Peter, 2004.

Appendix

Test for determining the type of temperament

You will need to agree or disagree with each statement depending on how it applies to you.

Part 1

1. I am fussy and restless.

2. I am unrestrained and quick-tempered

3. I am impatient.

4. I am blunt and direct in communication.

5. I am often the initiator of all kinds of events.

6. I am stubborn.

7. In a dispute, I am very resourceful.

8. It is difficult for me to keep a certain rhythm in work.

9. I often take risks.

10. I do not remember resentment.

11. I speak very quickly and excitedly.

12. I am unbalanced and often get excited over small things.

13. I am intolerant of the shortcomings of others.

14. I love teasing people.

15. My facial expressions are very expressive.

16. I make decisions quickly.

17. Everything new attracts me.

18. My movements are jerky and abrupt.

19. I always persevere towards my goal.

20. My mood often changes for no particular reason.

Part 2

1. I am a cheerful person.

2. I am energetic and always know where to direct my energy.

3. I don't always finish what I started.

4. I often overestimate myself.

5. I grasp everything new literally on the fly.

6. My interests are fickle.

7. I deal with my failures quite easily.

8. It is easy for me to adapt to almost any circumstances.

9. Any business that I do fascinates me.

10. As soon as my interest in a case fades away, I tend to drop it.

11. I easily get involved in a new job, as well as switch from one type of activity to another.

12. Monotonous painstaking work depresses me.

13. I am sociable and responsive, I have many friends.

14. I have a high working capacity, I am very hardy.

15. I usually speak loudly, quickly and clearly.

16. Even in difficult and unforeseen circumstances, I do not lose my composure.

17. I am always friendly.

18. I usually fall asleep and wake up without difficulty.

19. I often make hasty, thoughtless decisions.

20. Sometimes I am someone inattentively, not delving into the essence of the story.

Part 3

1. Usually I am calm and cool.

2. In all cases, I adhere to a certain sequence.

3. Usually I am reasonable and cautious.

4. I calmly endure waiting.

5. If I have nothing to say, I prefer to remain silent.

6. My speech is measured and calm.

7. I am reserved and patient.

8. I usually finish what I started.

9. I do not waste energy on trifles, but I can be very efficient if I see that it is worth it.

10. In work and in life, I adhere to the usual pattern.

11. I find it easy to contain my emotions.

12. Praise or criticism addressed to me is of little concern to me.

13. I am condescending to jokes addressed to me.

14. My interests are consistent.

15. I slowly get involved in work or switch from one activity to another.

16. I usually have an even relationship with others.

17. I am neat and I like order in everything.

18. I find it difficult to adapt to a new environment.

19. I am very self-possessed.

20. I establish contact with new people gradually.

Part 4

1. I am shy and shy.

2. In an unfamiliar environment, I feel confused.

3. I find it difficult to talk to a stranger.

4. Sometimes I don't believe in myself.

5. I calmly endure loneliness.

6. Failure depresses me.

7. Sometimes I withdraw into myself for a long time.

8. I get tired quickly.

9. I speak very quietly, sometimes almost in a whisper.

10. I always adapt to my interlocutor.

11. Sometimes something impresses me so much that I can't hold back my tears.

12. I am very sensitive to praise or criticism.

13. I make high demands on myself and others.

14. I am suspicious and suspicious.

15. I am an easily injured person.

16. I am easily offended.

17. I prefer to hide my thoughts from others.

18. I am shy and inactive.

19. I usually meekly obey orders.

20. I would like to arouse sympathy for me in others.

Calculate the percentage of positive responses for each type of temperament:

Choleric= (A1/Ax100%)

Sanguine = (A2/Ax100%)

Phlegmatic = (A3/Ax100%)

Melancholic = (A4/Ax100%)

Test results

If the result for any type is 40% or higher, then this type of temperament is dominant in you.

If the result for any type is 30-39%, then the traits characteristic of this type are quite pronounced in you.

If the result for any type is 20-29%, then you have an average level of expression characteristic of this type of temperament.

If the result was 10-19%, then the features of this type are weakly expressed in you.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

SEI HPE "MARI STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY"

Department of History and Psychology

Essay on psychology on the topic "Basic teachings about temperament"

Completed: st.gr.SRb-21, Sharnina A.B

Checked by: Ph.D., Associate Professor, Petrukhina S.R.

Introduction…………………………………………………………3-4

1. The concept of temperament…………………………………………..5-7

2. Basic teachings about temperament.

2.1. Physiological theory of temperaments of Hippocrates ... ... 8-11

2.2. Neurotic theory of temperaments by I.P. Pavlov…….12-15

2.3 Theories of temperaments by E. Kretschmer and W. Sheldon………..16-19

2.4. I.Kant's theory of temperaments……………………………....20-21

Conclusion………………………………………………………22-24

References……………………………………………...25

Appendix………………………………………………………....26-28

Introduction

1.The concept of temperament

2.1.Physiological theory of temperaments of Hippocrates.

The concept of temperament.

Considering mental processes, psychologists point to individual differences in their course. But it must be remembered that the bearer of mental processes is a specific person. Feels, thinks, feels a person with a certain personality. Only this particular personality creates the unity of the human psyche.

Therefore, psychology faces the task of studying those individual psychological characteristics of the personality, which, including differences in the course of individual mental processes, are at the same time new qualitative formations that give originality to the mental image of a person.

Temperament is one of the manifestations of individual psychological characteristics of a person. Under temperament is understood as the individual-peculiar properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which are equally manifested in a variety of activities, regardless of its content, goals, motives, remain constant in adulthood and in their mutual connection characterize the type of temperament.

Human temperament is manifested in different areas of mental activity. It appears especially brightly in the emotional sphere, in the speed and strength of emotional excitability. There are people who are emotionally responsive, impressionable. Even minor events find an emotional response in them. They warmly respond to the events of social life, work with enthusiasm and passion. On the other hand, there are people with reduced excitability, unimpressive. Only especially important events in public and private life cause them joy, anger, fear, etc. To everyday events, they relate without excitement; work energetically, calmly.

Other people quickly establish their attention, quickly think, speak, remember. Conversely, there are people whose characteristic feature is the slow, calm flow of mental processes. They think slowly, they speak slowly. Their speech is monotonous, inexpressive. Slowness is found in them in other mental processes, as well as in attention. Temperamental differences are also manifested in the features motility: in body movements, in gestures, in facial expressions. Some people have fast, energetic movements, plentiful, sharp gestures, expressive facial expressions. In others, movements are slow, smooth, gestures are mean, facial expressions are inexpressive. The first is characterized by liveliness, mobility, the second - motor restraint. Temperament affects the characteristics of moods and the nature of their change. Some people are most often cheerful, cheerful; their moods change often and easily, while others are prone to lyrical moods; their moods are stable, their change is smooth. There are people whose moods change abruptly, unexpectedly.

The nature of the course of mental activity depends on temperament. 1. The speed of occurrence of mental processes and their stability, for example, the speed of the mind, the speed of perception, the duration of concentration. 2. Mental tempo and rhythm. 3. The intensity of mental processes - the activity of the will, the strength of emotions, etc. 4. Orientation of mental activity. That is, the focus on certain objects, for example, the desire for new impressions or the appeal to oneself, to one's ideas, etc.

Definition of temperament: temperament is called an individual psychological feature of a person, which manifests itself in the degree of emotional excitability, in the speed and energy of the course of mental processes, in the speed and expressiveness of movements, facial expressions and gestures, and in the features of changing moods. Temperament- this is a peculiarity of the dynamics of human mental activity.

You can give the following definition of temperament: Feature the individual from the side of his dynamic features, that is, the speed, pace and rhythm of mental processes and mental states.

The development of the doctrine of temperament.

The founder of the doctrine of temperament is the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived in the 5th century BC. BC. Hippocrates claimed that there are four fluids in the human body: yellow bile and black bile, blood and mucus. These liquids are mixed with each other in a certain proportion. Hippocrates called the proportion or ratio of four liquids in a mixture the ancient Greek word "crasis". This word was subsequently translated into Latin by the word temperamentum. The common word "temperament" comes from the said Latin term. Hippocrates believed that in mixing four

liquids, one of them may predominate. From the predominance of a certain liquid in mixing, a type of temperament arises. According to Hippocrates, there are four main types of temperament - choleric, melancholic, phlegmatic and sanguine.

The choleric temperament arises from such a mixture of the four fluids, in which yellow bile predominates. The name of this temperament established by Hippocrates - choleric comes from the ancient Greek word hole. Translated into Russian, it means - "bile". The word "choleric" in Russian means "bilious". The mixture of the four liquids, dominated by black bile, was called by Hippocrates the melancholic temperament. The name of this temperament comes from two ancient Greek words: melan - black and hole - bile. Hence the word "melancholic" in translation into Russian means "black bile." Hippocrates called the mixing of the four liquids with an excess of mucus the phlegmatic temperament. From the Greek word phlegma, phlegm. Finally, the fourth type of temperament arises when the four blood fluids predominate in the mixture. Hippocrates did not give this temperament a special name. Later it was called sanguine. From the Latin word sanguts - blood. Hence "sanguine" can be translated into Russian with the word "bloody".

Hippocrates approached the problem of temperaments from a medical point of view. He believed that this or that temperament creates a predisposition to certain kinds of diseases. Hippocrates' teaching in its content corresponded to the level of development of the sciences of his time and was long out of date. However, the name of Hippocrates will always live in the history of the science of temperament. His merit is that he was the first to put forward the idea of temperament, which has existed for over two and a half thousand years.

The terms introduced by Hippocrates to denote certain types of temperament turned out to be tenacious: choleric, melancholic, phlegmatic. Words such as "temperament", "sanguine", although they do not belong to Hippocrates himself, but their appearance in science is associated with his teaching on temperament.

Hippocrates' doctrine of temperament aroused great interest in this problem among ancient scientists - philosophers, doctors. Already in antiquity, many different teachings about temperament appeared (Aristotle, Galen, etc.). Some of them argued that the mental qualities of a person also depend on temperament.

The founder of the psychological doctrine of temperament is the German philosopher Kant. The characteristics of the four temperaments (sanguine, melancholic, choleric and phlegmatic) vividly written by him were considered classical for a long time and had a great influence on the development of teachings about temperament in empirical psychology. Kant's doctrine of temperament and the numerous theories of temperament created by empirical psychologists are based on idealistic philosophy and cannot be considered scientific.

In addition to psychological theories of temperament, many others have been created - chemical, physical, physiological. Some scientists looked for the basis of temperament in the chemical composition of the body and blood. Others - in the movement of tissue molecules; the third - in the nature of the metabolism in the body, in the speed and strength of the movement of blood in the vessels, in the activity of the endocrine glands, etc.

E. Kretschmer in 1921 proposed to consider the dependence of the psyche on the type of physique. This typology is called constitutional typologies. He singled out four constitutional types: 1. Leptosomatic is characterized by a fragile physique, tall stature, and a flat chest. The shoulders are narrow, the lower limbs are long and thin. 2. Picnic - a person with pronounced adipose tissue, excessively obese and clumsy, characterized by small or medium stature, a swollen body with a large belly and a round head on a short neck. 3. Athletic - a person with well-developed muscles, strong physique, broad shoulders, narrow hips. 4. Dysplastic - a person with a shapeless, irregular structure (disproportionate physique, etc.).

With the named types of body structure, Kretschmer correlates the three types of temperament he singled out: schizothymic(closed, stubborn, inactive); ixothymic(calm,

Unimpressive, with low flexibility of thinking); cyclothymia(his emotions waver between joy and sadness, he easily contacts people and is realistic in his views).

In the 40s of the 20th century, W. Sheldon also developed his constitutional concept of temperament. It should be noted that in psychological science, most of the constitutional concepts have become the object of sharp criticism.

The famous psychologist X. Eysenck believes that a person's personality includes four levels: I - the level of individual reactions; II - the level of habitual reactions; III - the level of individual personality traits; IV - level of typical traits: intro-extraversion, emotional instability (neuroticism), psychopathic traits, intelligence.

Neuroticism is emotional and psychological instability, susceptibility to psychotrauma. In persons with increased neuroticism, due to excessive impressionability and resentment, even over trifles, emotional stress can occur. They endure conflicts for a long time, “cannot pull themselves together”, are often depressed, upset, irritable, anxious, the circle of their friends usually narrows. These traits are quite persistent and can be smoothed out in the process of persistent self-education.

Extraversion in combination with increased neuroticism causes the manifestation of the choleric temperament; "introversion plus neuroticism" determines the temperament of the melancholic; the opposite of neuroticism is emotional stability, balance, combined with extraversion, manifests itself as a sanguine type.

Scientific Solution problems of temperaments became possible only thanks to the teachings of I.P. Pavlova about types of higher nervous activity. Temperament - these are the innate characteristics of a person that determine the dynamic characteristics of the intensity and speed of response, the degree of emotional excitability and balance, and the features of adaptation to the environment.

There are no better or worse temperaments - each of them has its positive aspects, therefore, the main efforts should be directed not to reworking the temperament (which is impossible due to the innate temperament), but to the reasonable use of its merits and leveling its negative sides.

Mankind has long tried to highlight the typical features of the mental make-up of various people, to reduce them to a small number of generalized portraits - types of temperament. Such typologies were practically useful, since with with their help it was possible to predict the behavior of people of a certain temperament in specific life situations.

Temperament, translated from Latin, is a mixture, proportionality.

Types of higher nervous activity and their correlation with temperaments.

Experimenting on dogs, I.P. Pavlov noticed that each animal has its own individual characteristics. One dog - live, mobile; she quickly develops conditioned reflexes, both positive and inhibitory; the stereotype is changed relatively quickly. Another dog is distinguished by its calmness and slowness; she slowly develops positive conditioned reflexes and relatively easily - inhibitory ones; alteration of the dynamic stereotype is not easy for this type of dog. From an attempt to find out the reasons for these differences, the teaching of I.P. Pavlov about the types of higher nervous activity.

Type of higher nervous activity, according to Pavlov, - This a peculiar complex of the basic properties of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition- strength, balance and mobility.

Under by the power of nervous processes I.P. Pavlov understood the performance of nerve cells, their ability to endure strong stress without falling into a state of inhibition (outrageous inhibition). The strength of nervous processes depends on the stock of reactive, or functional, substance in the nerve cells. I.P. Pavlov said: “A cell with a small supply of functional substance will be a weak cell and, accordingly, a weak nervous type, and with a large supply of functional substance, it will be strong.”

The first property is strength. The strength of the process of excitation and inhibition, depending on the performance of nerve cells. A strong nervous system is characterized

great strength of nervous processes - excitation and inhibition; the latter is due to the large stock of reactive substance in the nerve cells. A weak nervous system is associated with a small supply of functional substance in nerve cells; it is characterized by weakness of the main nervous processes - excitation and inhibition. A strong nervous system is able to endure great tension, but a weak one cannot endure such tension.

The second property, laid down by I.P. Pavlov in determining the type of higher nervous activity is balance of the main nervous processes- excitation and inhibition, the degree of compliance of the excitation force with the inhibition force or their balance. Equilibrium follows from the ratio of the processes of excitation and inhibition in terms of their strength. If both nervous processes are approximately of the same strength, then they balance each other. Such a nervous system is called balanced. If one of the nervous processes (usually excitation) prevails in strength over the other (inhibition), then such a nervous system will be unbalanced.

The third property that determines the type of higher nervous activity, is the mobility of the main nervous processes- excitation and inhibition, i.e. the rate of change of excitation by inhibition and vice versa. The nervous system of man and animal is constantly exposed to environmental influences, which are characterized by inconstancy and variability. The balance of the organism with the environment is achieved only if both nervous processes - excitation and inhibition - keep pace with the fluctuations of the environment in terms of the speed of the flow and the speed of the change. I.P. Pavlov defines the mobility of nervous processes as the ability to "quickly, at the request of external conditions, give way, give preference to one stimulus over another, stimulus over inhibition and vice versa."

Excitation. Excitation is a property of living organisms, an active response of excitable tissue to irritation. For the nervous system, excitation is the main function. The cells that form the nervous system have the property of conducting excitation from the site where it arose to other sites and to neighboring cells.

Thanks to this, nerve cells have acquired the ability to transmit signals from one body structure to another. Excitation became a carrier of information about the properties of stimuli coming from outside and, together with inhibition, a regulator of the activity of all organs and systems of the body. The process of excitation occurs only at a certain intensity of the external stimulus, which exceeds the absolute threshold of excitation characteristic of this organ.

In the course of evolution, along with the complication of the nervous system, methods of transmitting excitation were also improved, in which this process extends to the end of the path without any weakening, which allows excitation to carry out a regulatory function in the whole organism. The process of excitation together with inhibition forms the basis of higher nervous activity. Their dynamics leaves a seal on all acts of behavior, up to the most complex ones, and their individual characteristics determine the type of higher nervous activity.

Braking. Inhibition is an active process, continuously associated with excitation, leading to a delay in the activity of nervous processes or working organs. In the first case, braking is called central, in the second - peripheral. Peripheral inhibition was discovered in 1840 by the Weber brothers, who received a delay in heart rate during rhythmic stimulation of the vagus nerve. Central inhibition was discovered by I.M. Sechenov in 1863. This discovery had a profound impact on the study of not only neurodynamics, but also the regulation of mental processes.

At present, two different ways of inhibition of cellular activity have been identified: inhibition can either be the result of the activation of specific inhibitory structures, or arise as a result of preliminary excitation of the cell.

The mobility of the nervous processes of an animal in laboratory conditions is determined by converting a positive reflex into an inhibitory one and vice versa. If in a series of experiments the sound stimulus is reinforced by the action of the unconditioned (food), and the light stimulus is not reinforced, then the animal develops a positive conditioned reflex

leke to the sound and brake - to the light. If, in subsequent experiments, the reverse is done: the light stimulus is reinforced by the action of the unconditioned (food), and the sound stimulus is not reinforced, then the positive conditioned reflex must be converted into an inhibitory one and the inhibitory one into a positive one. In animals with a mobile nervous system, this alteration occurs relatively quickly. and painless; animals with sedentary nervous system such alteration is given with with great difficulty. Speed and ease of alteration of positive conditioned reflexes in brake and inhibitory to positive is an indicator of the mobility of nervous processes. On the basis of mobility, the nervous system can be mobile or inert.

The mobile nervous system is characterized by the rapid course of nervous processes, rapid and easy change of the process of excitation by the process of inhibition and vice versa. A characteristic feature of the inert nervous system is the relatively slow flow of the main nervous processes - excitation and braking and the difficulty of their interchange.

Depending on the originality of the combination of these three basic properties of nervous processes - strength, balance and mobility, there are peculiar types of the nervous system. This was pointed out by I.P. Pavlov: “As a result of possible fluctuations in the basic properties of the nervous system and possible combinations of these fluctuations, types of the nervous system should occur and, as arithmetical calculations indicate, at least twenty-four, but, as reality testifies, in a much smaller number, and precisely four types, especially sharp, conspicuous ... ".

Emphasizing the possibility of a wide variety of combinations of the basic properties of the nervous processes of strength, balance and mobility, I.P. Pavlov argued that four variants of these properties are most often found in life. They determine the four main types of higher nervous activity.

Physiological the characteristics of the four types of higher nervous activity can be represented as follows: Type I - strong, balanced, mobile; II type - strong, unbalanced; III type - strong, balanced, inert; IV type - weak.

The doctrine of the types of higher nervous activity by I.P. Pavlov developed as a result of experiments on animals (dogs). He was always cautious about the possibility of transferring data obtained through experiments on animals to humans. However, he considered it possible to extend the doctrine of the types of higher nervous activity to man. I.P. Pavlov believed that the type of higher nervous activity is manifested in the behavior and animal activity and person. The imprint that the type of higher nervous activity leaves on behavior and human activity, I.P. Pavlov called temperament. I.P. Pavlov drew a parallel between the four main types of higher nervous activity and temperaments, the existence of which was first noticed by Hippocrates.

In addition to these basic temperaments, there are many others - individual, or mixed. The most studied in psychology are the four basic temperaments; individual or mixed temperaments have not been studied enough.

temperament properties.

1. Sensitivity is determined by what is the smallest force of external influences necessary for the occurrence of any mental reaction of a person, and what is the rate of occurrence of this reaction.

2. Reactivity characterized by the degree of involuntary reactions to external or internal influences of the same strength (a critical remark, an offensive word, a sharp tone, even a sound).

3. Activity indicates how intensely (energetically) a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in achieving goals (persistence, focus, concentration). The ratio of reactivity and activity determines what human activity depends to a greater extent: on random external or internal circumstances (mood, random events) or from goals, intentions,
beliefs. Plastic and rigidity indicates how easily and flexibly a person adapts to external influences (plasticity) or how inert and inert his behavior is. The rate of reaction, the characteristic speed of various mental reactions and processes, the rate of speech, the dynamics of gestures, the speed of the mind.

5. Rate of reactions. We judge this property by the speed of various mental reactions and processes, that is, the speed of movements, the pace of speech, the speed of memorization, the speed of the mind, resourcefulness.

6. Plastic- rigidity. The ease and flexibility of a person's adaptation to external influences is plasticity. Rigidity - inertia, inertia of behavior, habits, judgments.

7. Extraversion, introversion determines what the reactions and activities of a person mainly depend on - from external impressions that arise at the moment (extrovert), or from images, ideas and thoughts related to the past and future (introvert).

8. emotional excitability, How weak an impact is necessary for the occurrence of an emotional reaction and at what speed it occurs.

Psychological characteristics of temperament types.

The psychological characteristics of the main types of temperament stem from its psychological essence and are closely related to its definition. They reveal the features of emotional excitability, the speed and energy of the course of mental processes, the features of motor skills, the nature of the prevailing moods and the features of their change. The characteristics reveal the originality of the dynamics of the psychological activity of the individual, due to the corresponding type of higher nervous activity.

Given the above, the psychological characteristics of the main types of temperaments can be presented in the following form:

I. Sanguine temperament, which is based on a strong, balanced, mobile type of higher nervous activity, is characterized by mild emotional excitability, rapid mental processes, fast, numerous, varied movements, an abundance of light, graceful gestures, rich facial expressions, a predominance of a cheerful, cheerful mood , quick, painless mood swings.

2. Choleric temperament, which is based on a strong, unbalanced (with a predominance in strength of the excitation process), mobile type of higher nervous activity, psychologically characterized by increased emotional excitability, rapid, energetic flow of mental processes, fast, energetic movements, sharp gestures , expressive facial expressions, stable cheerful mood and a sharp transition from one mood to another.

3. Phlegmatic temperament, which is based on a strong, balanced, inert type of higher nervous activity. It is characterized by the following features: reduced emotional excitability; slow, calm flow of mental processes; slow, few movements, rare, inexpressive gestures, inexpressive facial expressions; smooth, stable moods and their slow and smooth change.

4. Melancholic temperament, which is based on a weak type of nervous system, is characterized by high emotional excitability (sensibility), asthenic feelings, slow mental processes, relatively rapid fatigue, slow movements, weak facial expressions, few, low-energy gestures with weak expression, a tendency to sad lyrical moods, slow change of moods.

Research B.M. Teplova and V.D. Nebylitsin showed that the structure of the basic properties of the nervous system is much more complicated, and the number of combinations is much greater than previously thought. However, these four types of temperament, as the most generalized ones, can be used to study individuality. According to V.D. Nebylitsin, the so-called inhibitory type is distinguished, characterized by strength, mobility, imbalance, with a predominance of the braking process in terms of strength.

Character The general concept of character.

Features of temperament do not reveal the social appearance of a person. Knowing them, we cannot say anything about a person's life goals, the strength of his patriotism, honesty, diligence, perseverance and other qualities of his personality. People with the same temperaments can treat their duties differently, behave differently.

The behavior of a person as a member of society is considered, first of all, from the moral and volitional side. At the same time, they mean not the random actions of a person, but the stable features of his personality, psychological properties.

Patriotism, diligence, honesty, truthfulness, modesty are the moral qualities of a person. Decisiveness, initiative, perseverance, self-control, independence, courage are the volitional properties of a person. The moral and volitional side of behavior is most clearly expressed in a complex personality trait called "character".

The word "character" of ancient Greek origin and translated into Russian means "feature, sign, sign, feature."

Character- an individual combination of stable mental characteristics of a person, causing a typical way of behavior for a given subject in certain life conditions and circumstances.

Character in the dynamic sense of analytical psychology is the specific form that a person's energy is given by the dynamic adaptation of his needs to a particular mode of existence of a given society. Character, in turn, determines the thinking, emotions, and actions of individuals. It is rather difficult to see this, because we are usually convinced that thinking is an exclusively intellectual act and does not depend on the psychological structure of the personality. This, however, is not so, and the less true the more our thinking is confronted with ethical, philosophical, political, psychological or social problems, and not just with the empirical manipulation of specific objects. Such thinking, in addition to the purely logical elements involved in the act of thinking, is largely determined by the personality structure of the person who thinks. This applies equally to any doctrine and theoretical system, as well as to individual concepts: love, justice, equality, self-sacrifice, etc.

Each person has his own special character, inherent only to him, in which some features are more pronounced, others are weaker. A peculiar combination of character traits creates his individuality. Therefore, in life there are no people whose characters would be similar.

Character is formed throughout a person's life in accordance with the conditions of life, practice and social experience of a person. In turn, character has an impact on the formation of personality. The formation of character and personality as a whole is greatly influenced by education and self-education. In essence, the formation of personality continues throughout life, under the influence of the surrounding microenvironment (family) and macroenvironment (team). At the same time, in addition to a positive example of the family and others, a large role belongs to self-education, and if a person is aware of the shortcomings of his character or his personality traits, then it is never too late to correct them.

It often happens that a child grew up and was brought up in an unfavorable environment, in conditions of frequent conflicts between parents and other family members, often was not only a witness, but also a participant in these quarrels, which undoubtedly influenced the formation of his character and personality traits. The alcoholism of one or more family members has a particularly adverse effect on the formation of character and other personality traits. In addition to frequent conflicts, manifestations of the negative properties of human nature, a severe neurotic (psychogenic) situation is created in the family, which adversely affects the process of forming the character and personality of a teenager. Attraction to active work, communication with people of high psychological orientation and conviction, their positive way of acting and thinking make a teenager take a fresh look at the unsightly life of his parents, resist it. A teenager develops a new life perception, he makes the first attempts at self-education. The emerging needs for a different life, not like the unsightly life of parents, give rise to new interests.

In high school or in senior years of educational institutions, a worldview is formed. If this happens spontaneously, then the wrong formation of personality is possible. Needs may turn out to be perverted (the need for lies, etc.), and interests may be limited (interest in personal enrichment and well-being, the search for an "easy" life, etc.). Here, the team where a person studies or works is of great importance.

In the future, a lot depends on the abilities, character traits and strong-willed qualities. It should be emphasized that all these qualities can be developed in the process of education and growth, with persistent and purposeful self-education. Naturally, the natural inclinations of different people are different, and each one achieves success precisely in the activity for which he is most capable. Therefore, it is important that a person chooses a profession in accordance with his capabilities.

Character- this is an individual type of mental reactions to the action of direct stimuli and impressions of reality.

The character of a person is formed under the influence of the totality of social relations in which a person is included and which determine the way of his life. The leading role in shaping the character of a person belongs to education.