Individual psychological characteristics of a person. Individual psychological characteristics of the personality Personality is the totality of individual psychological characteristics

Psychology studies not only the general laws and patterns of mental processes and states. We are all different, unique and inimitable, therefore, knowledge of the individual psychological characteristics of a person is no less important than the mechanisms and processes of the psyche that are characteristic of all people. The branch of psychology that studies this area is called differential psychology, or the psychology of individual differences.

There is a saying: "An alien soul is darkness." This is true only for those who do not know psychology at all. And this science is quite accurate, and it claims that there are unshakable general principles to which the mental processes of any person are subject. Not only the similarity of the physiological structure, but also the commonality of the features of the mental sphere makes it possible to attribute all people to one species of Homo sapiens. Even the stages of our development, we go through similar ones and we all experience the same difficulties of growing up.

In psychology, there is a concept of the norm, albeit rather shaky. Too much deviation from the mental norm is considered a pathology, it is recognized mental illness and requires the intervention of a psychotherapist or psychiatrist.

However, people are still different, and this is noticeable, one might say, with the naked eye, even to a person inexperienced in psychology. We behave differently in similar situations, we manifest differently. There are differences in the flow, and in the level, and in, and in motor skills.

These features are manifested within the framework of general patterns, but they play an important role in creating a unique image of a person. And at the same time, they help to understand her desires, to predict behavior. That is, the individual is manifested in general, and not only through the features of behavior, external, but also at the internal level of consciousness.

Despite the diversity of manifestations of our psyche, when they talk about individual psychological characteristics, they primarily mean three areas:, and. And if, for example, in cognitive processes, the individual is only a superstructure, an addition to general patterns, then temperament, character and abilities can be considered as a manifestation of the unique uniqueness of each person.

Temperament

The natural prerequisite for individual differences are the characteristics of the nervous system and, first of all, temperament. This term itself, translated from Latin, means "a mixture of elements." Indeed, temperament is a complex of human qualities. Their various combinations give rise to a variety of mental activity of people, which manifests itself in four main types of temperament.

Types of temperament according to Hippocrates

For the first time different types temperament was described by the ancient Greek physician and thinker Hippocrates. He believed that the difference in the behavior of people is due to the fluid prevailing in their body.

• Sangva - blood gives a person strength, activity, perseverance in achieving a goal, sociability and qualities of a warrior and.
• Phlegm (mucus) manifests itself in calmness, slowness and equanimity.
• Holi (bile) makes a person mobile, even fussy, prone to frequent mood swings and sociable to the point of obsession.
• Melan holi (black bile) gives rise to gloominess, a mood of decline and indecision; people in whom this fluid predominates are gloomy losers.

The types of temperament described by the ancient Greek scientist (sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic and choleric) are still the most popular, although, of course, adjustments have been made to their characteristics. And now no one connects the features of temperament with the liquid prevailing in the body.

Temperament in modern psychology

In fact, temperament is a dynamic characteristic of the psyche, and the difference in its types is associated with the mobility and strength of the two main nervous processes - excitation and inhibition. This connection was discovered and described by the Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov. He proposed his own classification of temperaments, which basically coincides with the Hippocratic one.

The sanguine person is characterized by a high speed and strength of nervous processes, as well as a balance of excitation and inhibition. This makes sanguine people active, but without fussiness. They have a high working capacity and a stable mood with quite bright and strong emotions. They are sociable, but picky in the choice of friends and pragmatic. The cause is above all for them.

A phlegmatic person with strength of both excitation and inhibition is characterized by a low speed of nervous processes with a predominance of inhibition, that is, inertia. This is, in the truest sense of the word, a brake type. Phlegmatic people do not like changing activities, they are unemotional and unsociable. These are slow-witted, but stubborn workers.

Cholerics are characterized by high speed and strength of nervous processes, but their excessive mobility and instability. These are very active people with a changeable mood, they have many friends, but they themselves are fickle and cannot do one thing for a long time.

Melancholics are distinguished by the weakness of both the processes of excitation and inhibition, so their mood swings are not expressed, and it seems that they are constantly in a state of despondency.

Temperament Properties

AT pure form these types are not found, because temperament is a complex combination of properties and qualities, and it affects all areas of the psyche. For the convenience of studying individual psychological characteristics, several of the most important characteristics that make up temperament are distinguished.

• Sensitivity is the sensitivity of the nervous system to stimuli.
• Activity - the degree of performance and the ability to maintain a state of excitation.
• The rate of reactions or the speed of mental processes is manifested in the speed of changes in mood, speech, thinking, etc.
• - the level of sociability, communicative openness or isolation.
• Plasticity - the ease of changing activities and quick adaptation to changing conditions.
• Rigidity - resistance to change, loyalty to habits, stubbornness.

Temperament is largely due to innate factors and practically does not change during life. True, some of the most striking features in youth can be smoothed out with age, masked and adapted to the situation.

Temperament is the biological basis of another individual-personal property - character.

Character as a biosocial warehouse of personality

As a member of society, a person from the moment of birth interacts with other people, learns behavior, absorbs culture and traditions. As a result, each personality is a unique fusion of biological and social, and the formation of character takes place in the interaction of these two principles. Therefore, in the same environment, people develop different tempers. They differ even in twins, who have a very similar biological basis.

It's all about experience. From the moment of birth, we find ourselves in situations to which we react differently, not only depending on the traits of temperament, but also on external circumstances. As a result, we accumulate a diverse, but absolutely unique experience that affects the formation of character no less, but most likely more than the properties of physiology and the nervous system.

Character is a set of features and personality traits that manifest themselves in all spheres of life and leave an imprint on communication with other people, interests, nature of activity, etc. No wonder the term “character” from ancient Greek can be translated as a distinctive feature, seal, sign.

Character traits are quite stable, they are laid down in childhood and are a kind of hallmark of a person. But still, this property of a person is more variable than temperament, since life experience affects its content. And often, having met a person after several years of separation, we are surprised to notice changes in his character.

Character is a complex formation that has a complex structure. Therefore, there are many typologies or sets of its main features, which are described by different psychologists.

trait theory

The English psychologist G. Allport, one of the authors of the theory of traits, believed that each person is a unique and inimitable combination of individual character traits or dispositions (traits). By disposition, he understood a stable feature of behavior, the readiness of an individual to behave in a certain way in a given situation. That is, character is always manifested in behavior or activity, and in order to recognize a person, one must interact with him, see what he is like in business.

There are central dispositions or traits that determine the entire mental makeup of a person, and they immediately catch the eye. Someone is a clear workaholic, while the other seeks to avoid hard work. One is a cheerful, cheerful joker, and the other is always dissatisfied with everything and complains about everything. Some are bold to the point of recklessness, while others are cautious and indecisive. These are all the central dispositions that we name first when we are asked to characterize a person.

Along with the central ones, there are many secondary traits. They are not immediately noticeable and require more time to recognize. Secondary, for example, include interests, hobbies, clothing preferences, tastes, etc.

Allport also highlights common and individual features. Being a part of society, a person from birth acquires the qualities inherent in most people from his environment, for example, what we call a national character. Italians and Latin Americans are easily excitable and emotional, Norwegians and Swedes, on the contrary, are very calm, reasonable and slow, while the Japanese are characterized by contemplation and restraint.

Individual character traits are what distinguishes a person from other people. The more strongly they are expressed, the brighter individuality is the subject. However, if individual traits contradict the general ones, then society can apply social sanctions to such a person, express censure, for example.

On the basis of the theory of traits by G. Allport, methods of psychological diagnosis of personality were created, for example, factor analysis, tests by G. Eysenck, R. Cattell, etc.

character structure

Due to the complexity of this property and the variety of its manifestations, there are many different classifications of character traits. So, depending on the sphere of the psyche, which plays an important role in human behavior, the following are distinguished:

• Emotional, associated with the peculiarities of the sphere of emotions and feelings: cheerfulness or gloom, emotional excitability or coldness, etc.
• Volitional: decisiveness and indecision, perseverance, perseverance, independence, independence, etc.
• Moral: honesty or deceit, kindness and cruelty, responsiveness, courage, etc.
• Intellectual: curiosity, resourcefulness, quick wits, thoughtfulness, etc.

You can often hear such an expression as "weak person." What is it? Features of a person's character are manifested not only in a combination of traits, but also in the strength of their severity. There are people who, because of the weakness of the nervous system or because of the problems of education, have an unstable character. Some of its features are poorly expressed, especially problems are observed in the volitional sphere. Such people are called weak-willed.

Capabilities

Important personality traits are abilities that determine the individual style of activity and are the basis of its success. There are also qualities that provide the ability to interact with other people and are necessary to gain respect and authority from others.

Abilities and inclinations

Abilities are a complex system of qualities and properties of a person. Their biological basis is inclinations, that is, innate physical and mental characteristics, including the properties of temperament. But not only. Often the inclinations are associated with the psychophysiological characteristics of the body, they are given to a person from birth and are necessary for success in a particular activity. But they don't guarantee it.

For example, a musical ear is required for a musician, and a high sensitivity of the visual analyzer is required for an artist. But this alone is not enough to master the activity, especially to achieve success. For this, it is necessary to develop abilities, and this is possible only in activity and requires the investment of labor and strong-willed efforts. Mastery is not a gift given by nature or God, but, above all, hard work and perseverance.

Is it possible to develop abilities in the absence of natural inclinations? This is a very difficult question, and there is no clear answer to it. Undoubtedly, in the absence of the necessary qualities, it will be more difficult to master the activity, it will require more effort and, perhaps, the achievements will not be so impressive. But recently, more and more psychologists support the idea that a stubborn and persistent person can learn everything. The main thing is to give him right tricks learning. That is, to teach anyone to draw, you just need to know how to teach correctly.

Ability types

All the diversity of human abilities is usually divided into two types: general and special.

Special qualities include those qualities that are required for mastering a specific activity, such as ear for playing musical instruments or phonetic ear for learning. foreign languages. To play sports, you need endurance and mobility, and to work with children, you need a feeling.

General abilities are no less diverse, because they are needed in a variety of fields of activity. First of all, these include mental abilities or the level of intelligence. Although intelligence is considered an innate characteristic of a person, mental abilities require their development, including quality, as well as the volitional sphere and.

Sometimes a high level of mental ability, combined with learning ability, is called giftedness. This quality of a person can compensate for the lack of some special abilities and allow him to succeed in many activities.

No matter how valuable abilities are, they are only a potential, an opportunity for further development and human improvement. The same can be said about other individual psychological characteristics. Each individual has the opportunity to become a unique, extraordinary, talented person, but for this you need to know your psychological characteristics, your strengths and weak sides and actively engage in self-development.

Under the individual psychological characteristics of a person, first of all, his character, inclinations and abilities are meant.

From the Greek language, the word character can be translated as "seal", "chasing". It is a set of individual psychological characteristics of a person that develops in activity and determines typical ways of behavior for him. Character reflects the content side of the human psyche, in contrast to temperament, which is its dynamic side. The character embodies the attitudes specific for a given person to activities, to other people, to oneself. They characterize the subjective, selective connections of a person with the world. The most stable of them are fixed in the form of a person's readiness to act in a certain way, that is, in a semantic setting. Therefore, character can be defined as a fixed form of the semantic experience of a person, which is actualized in the individual style of behavior inherent in it, with the help of which certain motives are realized (A. G. Asmolov, 1996).

Motives play a special role in character development. Initially, any property of character is manifested in the motives of a person to act in a certain way. Manifested in various similar situations, these impulses are generalized, become stable and fixed as character traits. For example, every person had to tell a lie, but this does not mean that he is characterized by deceit. If he often resorts to lies in different situations, trying to solve his problems, then it (deceit) will become a property of his character. Thus, the system of generalized motives of a person is reflected in the character.

Much attention has been paid to the study of character in psychoanalysis. 3. Freud understood the dynamic originality of individual drives as character and associated its development with libido, i.e. with unconscious deep mental energy due to sexual instinct

There is a clinical approach to the study of character. It was reflected in the works of P. V. Gannushkin, K. Leonhard, A. E. Lichko, who paid special attention to various violations in the character structure. In particular, in line with the clinical approach to the problem of character, its violations within the normal range - character accentuation are actively studied. Gross, irreversible changes in character are associated with his pathology. Accentuations of character are manifested in the excessive development of its individual properties. They are more often found in adolescence (about 88% of adolescents have differences in character accentuation). Pathological manifestations of character, called psychopathy, should be distinguished from accentuations. The causes of character pathology are manifold. These include congenital defects of the human psyche, injuries, diseases, difficult social conditions, etc.

Abilities are understood as a set of individual psychological characteristics of a person, which is a condition for the successful performance of an activity. A person's abilities are not limited to his knowledge, skills, although there is a certain connection between abilities, on the one hand, and knowledge, skills, and skills, on the other. The higher the level of development of abilities, the easier and faster a person acquires knowledge, skills and abilities. And vice versa, the more a person knows and knows how, the more intensive is the development of his abilities.

The manifestation of abilities can be represented as the ratio of the productivity of an activity to its “price”, i.e., the higher the effectiveness of the activity and the less effort spent on its implementation, the higher the level of development of abilities. This is an objective assessment of a person's abilities. Subjectively, abilities are evaluated as the ratio of the success of an activity to the degree of difficulty in its implementation: the higher the success of an activity and the easier it is for a person, the higher he evaluates his abilities.

There are significant differences in the interpretation of the concept of "ability" in foreign and domestic psychology. In foreign psychology, abilities are often viewed as universal characteristics human: the ability to be creative, the ability to love. Sometimes abilities are understood as the innate characteristics of the subject. In domestic psychology, these features and abilities are clearly demarcated. The former are regarded as makings. The makings are understood as the anatomical and physiological and functional features of the nervous system (sensitivity, plasticity, etc.) and structural features of the analyzers.

The inclinations of a person, like other individual properties, are multi-valued, that is, on the basis of the same inclinations, various abilities can be formed. Thus, inclinations do not determine the development of abilities, but perform the function of their prerequisites. The inclinations of a person may remain unfulfilled if the conditions for their development are not created. Therefore, timely identification of inclinations is important for the formation of abilities. In families where parents are engaged in a certain type of activity, for example, acting, it is more likely that their children will show the corresponding inclinations. Of decisive importance for the development of abilities is the involvement of the person himself in this type of activity. Their development takes place in a spiral: the realization of the abilities of one level opens up opportunities for the realization of the abilities of another, higher level.

Abilities can be general and special, actual and potential. General abilities meet the requirements of many types of activity, special - the requirements of a particular activity (for example, musical, pedagogical, etc.). General abilities include intelligence, because it is necessary to perform any type of activity. Abilities exist in a certain unity of general and special.

Relevant can be called those abilities that, having formed, are realized in activities in real time. Potential abilities are in a latent (hidden) form until the occurrence of certain conditions necessary for their implementation. There is also a connection between actual and potential abilities.

Actual become potential if there is no need for their implementation. For example, musical abilities become potential if a person is focused on other activities in a given period of time.

We can talk about the levels of development of abilities, correlated with the giftedness of a person, his talent and genius. The level of giftedness implies a person's learning ability, the presence of intellectual potential. It is no coincidence that giftedness is considered as a general ability. Talent is a bright, extraordinary manifestation of a person's abilities in a particular area. Talent implies the development, first of all, of a person's special abilities. Genius - the highest level of development of abilities, expressed in the creation of a fundamentally new, having historical, epochal significance for the life of society. In the genius of a person, both his general and special abilities are manifested. If talent makes a significant contribution to a certain area, then a genius, with its creativity, changes the idea of ​​​​humanity about certain phenomena that are significant to it. Thanks to A. Einstein, the idea of ​​time has changed, and 3. Freud managed to change the view of society on the nature of the human psyche.

Abilities are associated with other properties of individuality: with character, values, motives, goals of self-consciousness. For example, such character traits as purposefulness, perseverance ensure the success of a person's activity, which, in turn, is a condition for the development of abilities.

Literature

2. Asmolov A. G. Cultural-historical psychology and the construction of worlds. - M., 1996.

3. Merlin V. S. Psychology of individuality. - M.; Voronezh,
1996.

4. Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - SPb., 2000.

Bibliography

Basic literature (O. l.)

1. Ananiev BG Psychology and problems of modern human knowledge. - M, 1996.

2. Introduction to psychology / ed. A. V. Petrovsky. - M.,
1995.

3. Vygotsky L. S. Developmental psychology as a phenomenon of culture. - M.; Voronezh, 1996.

4. Galperin P. Ya. Introduction to psychology. - M., 1976.

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10. Sokolova E. E. 13 dialogues about psychology. - M., 1995.

additional literature(D. l.)

1. Asmolov A. G. Cultural-historical psychology and the construction of worlds. - M., 1996.

2. Godfroy. What is psychology. -M., 1992.

3. Grishpun I. B. Introduction to psychology. - M., 1994.

4. Psychology / ed. A. A. Krylova. - M., 1999.

5. Stolyarenko L. D. Fundamentals of psychology. - Rostov-n / D., 1997.

6. Merlin V.S. Psychology of individuality. -M.; Voronezh,
1996.

Glossary

The unconscious is a wide range of mental phenomena from unconditioned reflexes to creative abilities

Action is a unit of activity; arbitrary deliberate mediated activity aimed at achieving a perceived goal.

Activity is a purposeful activity that realizes the needs of the subject.

Inclinations - anatomical, physiological and functional features of the nervous system, acting as natural prerequisites for the development of abilities.

Meaning is a generalized form of consolidation by the subject of socio-historical experience acquired in the process of joint activity and communication and existing in the form of concepts defined in action schemes, social roles, norms and values.

An individual is a person as a single natural being, a product of phylogenetic and ontogenetic development, a unity of innate and acquired, a carrier of individually unique traits (inclinations).

Individuality is the psychological originality of a separate, individual person taken as a whole, in all its properties and relationships.

Personality is a systemic quality of an individual determined by involvement in social relations, which is formed in joint activities and communication.

A motive is a set of external or internal conditions that cause the activity of the subject and determine its direction.

Ontogenesis is the formation of mental structures during the life of an individual organism, person or animal.

Behavior is the interaction inherent in living beings with environment mediated by their external (motor) and internal (mental) activity.

Need - the subjective state of the organism, expressing its objective need for the objects of the surrounding world

The principle of determinism is a principle that requires explaining the phenomena under study by the natural interaction of factors available to experimental control.

The principle of development is a principle that suggests that psychological patterns are revealed in the process of development.

The principle of consistency is a principle that requires considering all objects as systems, that is, as a set of elements that form a certain unity.

The principles of psychology are the norms by which the psychologist is guided in his activities when interpreting facts.

The psyche is a form of active display by the subject of the object of reality, arising in the process of interaction of highly organized beings with the outside world and performing a regulatory function in their behavior.

Mental processes - Separate manifestations of a person's mental activity, conditionally distinguished as independent objects of research (sensations, perceptions, thinking, etc.).

mental properties are individual characteristics the mental activity of a particular person, the features of his mental state, his interpersonal and personal-social relations, which make it possible to describe and predict his behavior, the direction and dynamics of mental development.

Mental states - special form mental realization, which is associated with a specific emotional well-being caused by the experience of significant events for a person

Psychology is the science of the laws of generation and functioning of the mental reflection of reality in the process of human activity and animal behavior.

Meaning - the personal meaning of certain phenomena, messages or actions, their relationship to the interests, needs and life context of a particular subject as a whole.

Consciousness is a form of reflection of reality in its objective, stable properties and in separation from the person’s existing relations to it.

Temperament - a set of formal-dynamic characteristics of human behavior, manifested in its general activity, temporal characteristics (tempo, rhythm, behavior) and features of emotional response.

Phylogeny is the formation of mental structures in the course of the biological evolution of a species or the sociocultural history of mankind.

The goal is a conscious image of the anticipated result, the achievement of which is directed by the action of a person.

Language is an objective, historically established system of codes.

1. Godefroy J. What is psychology: In 2 volumes - M., 1992.

2. Darwin Ch. Expression of emotions in humans and animals. M., 1991.

3. Nemov R.S. Psychology. -M., 1995. -T.1.

4. Simonov P.V. Emotional brain. -M., 1981.

5. Yakobson P.M. Psychology of feelings. -M., 1961.

6. Yakobson P.M. Psychology of emotions. -M., 1961.

Theme 6

1. The concept of temperament and its types.

2. General concept about character and nature.

3. Ability.

People largely differ from each other in that they react differently to all the events taking place in the world around them. Even in ancient times, scientists, observing the external features of people's behavior, drew attention to large individual differences in this regard. Some are very mobile, emotional, excitable, energetic. Others are slow, calm, imperturbable. Some are sociable, easily come into contact with others, cheerful, others are closed, secretive. These differences are largely due to human temperament. Temperament gives a purely individual coloring to all human activity and behavior. What is temperament and what are its properties?

Temperament- these are individual personality traits, manifested in the dynamics of the course of mental processes, general mobility and emotional excitability (congenital). Temperament in Latin means ratio, mixture.

There are three areas of manifestation of temperament: 1. General activity is determined by the intensity and volume of human interaction with the environment - physical and social. For this setting

a person can be inert, passive, calm, active.

2. Features of the motor sphere. It can be considered as particular expressions of the general activity. These include tempo, speed, rhythm, and total movement.

3. Emotionality is expressed in varying degrees of emotional excitability, in the speed of occurrence and strength of human emotions, in emotional sensibility.

Throughout the long history of study, temperament has always been associated with the organic, or physiological foundations of the body.

The roots of this physiological branch of the humoral doctrine of temperament go back to the ancient period. Hippocrates (5th century BC) described four types of temperament. He believed that there were four main fluids or juices in the human body: blood, mucus, yellow bile, and black bile. Mixing in each person in certain proportions, these fluids make up the temperament. Each temperament received a specific name from the name of the fluid that allegedly prevails in the body. Accordingly, the following types of temperament were distinguished:

a) sanguine(translated from Latin - blood);

b) choleric(in the lane with lat. - bile);

in) phlegmatic(in translation from Greek - mucus);

G) melancholic(in translation from Greek - black bile).

Hippocrates had a purely physiological approach to temperament. He did not connect it with the mental life of a person and even assumed the presence of temperament in individual organs, for example, in the heart or liver.

But over time, conclusions appeared about what mental properties a person should have in whose body this or that liquid predominates. As a result, there appeared psychological descriptions - portraits of different temperaments. The first such attempt also belongs to the ancient physician Galen (11th century BC). He identified thirteen temperaments, four of which are still in use today.

Later, in the 20th century, a constitutional theory of explaining the essence of temperament arose. Representatives of this theory, Ch. Lombroso, E. Kretschmer, W. Sheldon, believed that temperament is associated with physique, the constitution of a person. main idea this theory: the structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function.

E. Kretschmer identified four constitutional types of people: leptosomatic, picnic, athletic and dysplastic.

Leptosomatic is characterized by a fragile physique, high growth, flat chest. The shoulders are narrow, the lower limbs are long and thin.

Athletic - a person with well-developed muscles, a strong physique, characterized by high or medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips.

A picnic is a person with pronounced adipose tissue, excessively obese, characterized by small or medium stature, a swollen body with a large belly and a round head on a short neck.

Dysplastics are people with a shapeless, irregular body structure. Individuals of this type are characterized by various body deformities (for example, excessive growth, disproportionate physique).

With the first three types of body structure, E. Kretschmer correlated the three types of temperament identified and named by him: schizothymic, ixothymic and cyclothymic.

schizothymic, having an asthenic physique, closed, prone to fluctuations in emotions, stubborn, not very responsive to changing attitudes and views, with difficulty adapting to a new environment. Unlike him iksotimik, having an athletic physique, he manifests himself as a calm, unimpressive person with restrained gestures and facial expressions, with low flexibility of thinking, often petty. Picnic physique has cyclothymic, his emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, he easily contacts people and is realistic in his views.

Barely emerging, constitutional concepts have become the object of sharp scientific criticism. The main drawback of this approach is that it underestimates, and sometimes simply ignores, the role of the environment and social conditions in the formation of the mental properties of the individual.

The following approach to explaining the essence of temperament connects the types of temperament with activity of the central nervous system. In the teachings of I.P. Pavlov on the influence of the central nervous system on the dynamic features of behavior, three main properties of the nervous system are distinguished: strength, balance, mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition. He considered the force of excitation and the force of inhibition to be two independent properties of the nervous system.

The strength of nervous processes characterizes the working capacity, endurance of the nervous system and means its ability to endure both prolonged and

short-term excitation or inhibition. The opposite property - weakness of nervous processes - is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. Under the action of very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly pass into a state of protective inhibition. In a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But at the same time, a weak nervous system is highly sensitive: even to small stimuli, it gives an appropriate reaction.

The balance of nervous processes is the ratio of excitation and inhibition. In some people, these two processes are mutually balanced, while in others there is no balance: the process of excitation or inhibition predominates.

The mobility of nervous processes is their ability to quickly replace each other, the speed of movement of nervous processes, the speed of the appearance of a nervous process in response to irritation, the speed of the formation of new conditional connections.

Combinations of these properties of nervous processes formed the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity.

The type of higher nervous activity is a set of properties of the nervous system that make up the physiological basis of the individual originality of human activity.

Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the process of excitation and inhibition, four main types of GNI are distinguished:

1) strong, balanced, mobile - sanguine.

2) strong balanced, inert - phlegmatic.

3) strong, unbalanced - choleric.

4) weak - melancholic.

These types of the nervous system, not only in quantity, but also in basic characteristics, correspond to the four classical types of temperament.

In the 50s. in our country, laboratory studies of temperament were carried out under the guidance of B.M. Teplov, and then V.D. Numerous techniques for studying the properties of the human nervous system were developed, two more properties of nervous processes were experimentally isolated and described: lability and dynamism.

The lability of the nervous system is manifested in the speed of occurrence and termination of nervous processes. The essence of the dynamism of nervous processes is the ease and speed of the formation of positive (dynamic stimulation - excitation) and inhibitory (dynamic inhibition) conditioned reflexes.

At present, science has a significant number of facts that allow us to give a fairly complete psychological description of the types of temperament. To compile the psychological characteristics of traditionally four psychotypes, the following main properties of temperament are usually distinguished:

- sensitivity- is determined by what is the smallest force of external influences necessary for the occurrence of this reaction;

- activity- testifies to how intensively (energetically) a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in achieving goals (perseverance, focus, concentration of attention);

- the ratio of reactivity and activity - determines what human activity depends to a greater extent - on random external or internal circumstances (mood, random event) or from its goals, intentions, beliefs;

- plasticity and rigidity- indicate how easily and flexibly a person adapts to external influences (plasticity) or how inert and inert his behavior is (rigidity);

- reaction rate- characterizes the speed of various mental reactions, processes (the rate of speech, the dynamics of gestures, the speed of the human mind);

- extraversion - introversion - determines what the reactions and activities of a person mainly depend on - from external impressions that arise in this moment(extrovert - "directed outward") or from images, ideas and thoughts associated with internal experiences (introvert - "directed inward, towards oneself");

- emotional excitability-characterized by the minimum impact necessary for the occurrence of an emotional reaction in a person, and the speed of its occurrence.

Each individual type of temperament has its own characteristic features:

Choleric- this is a person whose nervous system is determined by the predominance of excitation over inhibition. Therefore, he reacts very quickly to external influences, often thoughtlessly. Such a person is impatient, waiting can drive him crazy. He shows impulsiveness, sharpness of movements, unbridledness.

The strength of the nervous system allows the choleric person to work long and uncontrollably at critical moments. At this time, his ability to concretize forces is very high. However, the imbalance of his nervous processes predetermines a quick and abrupt change in his activity and vigor by depletion of the body's forces and lethargy. The alternation of positive and negative mood causes nervousness of behavior, its increased susceptibility to neurotic breakdowns and conflicts. Inconstancy is his characteristic feature: either he is too talkative - you can’t stop him, then you can’t get a word out of him. It is very difficult to predict how a choleric person will behave in a new environment.

Sanguine- a person with a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system. He has a fast reaction rate, his actions are deliberate. He is cheerful, thanks to which he is characterized by a high resistance to the difficulties of life. He loves a joke, often becomes the ringleader, the soul of the company. The mobility of the nervous system determines the variability of his feelings, attachments, interests, views, high adaptability to new conditions. This is a sociable person who easily comes into contact with new people, so he has a wide circle of acquaintances, although he does not differ in constancy in communication and affection. Sanguine ~ a productive person when he has a lot of interesting things to do, i.e. with constant excitement. AT

Otherwise, he becomes boring, lethargic, distracted. Easily switches from one job to another. In a stressful situation, he acts actively, maintains his composure.

Phlegmatic person- a person with a strong, balanced, but inert nervous system. As a result, he reacts slowly to external influences, and is taciturn. Emotionally balanced, it is difficult to anger him, cheer him up. The mood is stable, even. Even with serious troubles, the phlegmatic remains outwardly calm.

The phlegmatic person has a high capacity for work, resists strong and prolonged stimuli well, but is not able to respond quickly in unexpected difficult situations. He prefers to finish the job and only then take on another. He is a strategist and constantly checks his actions with the prospect. He remembers well everything he has learned. With difficulty refuses the developed skills and stereotypes, does not like to change habits, life schedule, work, friends. It is difficult and slow to adapt to new conditions. Often he hesitates for a long time when making a decision, but unlike the melancholic, he manages without outside help.

melancholic- a person with a weak nervous system, who has increased sensitivity even to weak stimuli, and a strong stimulus can cause a nervous breakdown, confusion. Therefore, in stressful situations (exam, competition, danger), the results of the melancholic's activities may deteriorate compared to a calm, familiar environment. Hypersensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and a drop in performance (quite a long rest is required). Even an insignificant occasion can cause resentment, tears. His mood is very changeable, but usually a melancholic tries not to show his feelings outwardly, does not talk about his experiences, although he is inclined to give himself up to them. Often he is sad, depressed, unsure of himself, anxious. He may develop neurotic disorders. Possessing a high sensitivity of the nervous system, melancholics often have pronounced artistic and intellectual abilities.

Temperament acts as a common basis for "many personal characteristics person and, above all, character. But temperament should not be confused with character, which is a combination of the most stable, essential personality traits. Character is manifested in the behavior of a person, in his attitude to the world and himself. People of the same temperament can be kind and cruel, lazy and hardworking, neat and sloppy. Temperament sets only the dynamics of mental response.

Such personality traits as impressionability, impulsiveness and anxiety depend on temperament.

The individual style of human activity is due to a certain combination of temperament properties, manifested in cognitive processes, actions, and communication. It is a system of dynamic features of activity dependent on temperament, which contains work methods that are typical for a given person.

The individual style of activity is not reduced only to temperament, it is determined by other reasons and includes skills and habits formed under the influence of life experience. Individual style of activity can be seen as the result of adaptation innate properties nervous system and characteristics of the human body to the conditions of the activity performed. This device is designed to provide the best performance at the lowest cost to humans.

What we, when observing a person, perceive as signs of his temperament (various movements, reactions, forms of behavior) is often a reflection not so much of temperament as of an individual style of activity, the features of which may coincide and diverge from temperament.

The core of the individual style of activity determines the complex of properties of the nervous system that a person has. Among the features that relate to the individual style of activity, one can single out those that are acquired in experience and are compensatory in nature in relation to the shortcomings of the individual properties of the human nervous system, they contribute to the maximum use of the person's inclinations and abilities.

It should be noted that in a "pure" form, temperament is relatively rare. Usually, the traits of a certain temperament predominate in a person, but at the same time, individual traits characteristic of a different temperament are also observed.

It should also be taken into account that temperaments cannot be assessed as bad or good. Each temperament has its own positive sides, and on the basis of each temperament, with improper upbringing, negative manifestations of the personality can form.

What should be the strategy of the educator in relation to students various types temperament?

Choleric students should try to develop a lagging inhibitory process through training, to develop the ability to slow down themselves, their unwanted reactions. From these students it is necessary to constantly, gently, but persistently demand calm, thoughtful answers, calm, unsharp movements. It is necessary to systematically instill in such children restraint in behavior and relationships with peers and adults. Whereas enthusiasm in the process of work, energy and activity, the reasonable initiative of the choleric should be encouraged. Since the choleric person is often in an affective state, it is not recommended to speak with him in a sharp and raised tone, as this will only increase his arousal. The choleric person is better affected by an emphatically calm, quiet voice.

Melancholic students should be gradually weaned from excessive shyness and shyness, they should be given the opportunity to act more and be active. But at the same time, one should observe gradualness in working capacity training, remembering that these children quickly get tired. At the lesson, such students should be asked more often, creating a calm atmosphere during their answer (praise and approval play a big role in this). In children of the melancholic type, it is necessary to develop sociability.

Phlegmatic students need to form such qualities that they lack, such as greater mobility, activity. Do not allow them to show indifference to activities, lethargy, inertia. The teacher should try to form the attitude of such students to work at the lesson at a certain pace, as well as stimulate their positive emotional attitude to learning activities.

Sanguine students need to cultivate perseverance, stable interests, a more serious attitude to the work begun, the ability to bring it to the end.

It is also important to take into account the fact that self-education of the personality plays a big role in mastering temperament - the conscious attitude of a person to eradicate negative manifestations of temperament and consolidate its positive aspects.

People have different attitudes towards the world around them. This attitude is expressed in the behavior, actions of a person. If a certain attitude to reality and the forms of behavior corresponding to it are not accidental for a particular person, but are more or less stable and constant, then they are properties of his personality.

The properties of a person, expressing an attitude to reality, form a kind of peculiar combination, which is not the sum of the individual features of a given person, but a single whole, which is called the character of a person.

The word "character" of Greek origin and in translation means "feature", "sign", "sign", "feature".

Character - this is an individual combination of essential personality traits that show a person’s attitude to the world around him and are expressed in his behavior. In other words, character is an attitude fixed in habitual forms of behavior.

According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, the habitual behavior of a person is a system of firmly entrenched responses to the repeatedly repeated influences of the surrounding social environment. These biological and even genotypic properties of an individual, according to I.P. Pavlov, determine the temperament that forms the basis of character.

In the history of psychology, there are three points of view on the nature of character: according to some, it is hereditarily determined; others believe that it is entirely determined by the conditions of life; still others argue that character has both hereditary and acquired properties.

The first point of view is characterized by the biologization of character, the second - by sociologization, which reduces the role of the biological factor to a minimum. Both points of view, according to modern psychologists, are erroneous, because they do not correspond to reality. More realistically reflects the nature of character, the point of view adopted in Russian psychology, according to which character is not innate, but features of the organization of the nervous system and genotype also affect its manifestations. According to Yu.B. Gippenreiter, it is necessary to consider certain properties of the organism as biological or genotypic prerequisites of character.

Thus, on the basis of an analysis of the problem of the "biological foundations of character," it can be concluded that the formation of character is determined both by the characteristics of the genotype and by the influence of the social environment.

The personality is very multifaceted. It is possible to single out separate sides or features in it that do not exist in isolation, separately from each other, but are mutually connected, forming an integral character structure.

To determine the structure or structure of the character of a person means to single out the main components or properties in the character. In the structure of character, researchers distinguish various properties.

B. G. Ananiev considers character to be an expression and a condition for the integrity of the personality. Its main properties include orientation, habits, communicative properties, emotional and dynamic manifestations, formed on the basis of temperament.

A.G. Kovalev, V.N. Myasishchev include in the character structure such pairs of properties as: balance - imbalance; sensitivity - aggressiveness; latitude - narrowness; depth - superficiality; wealth, richness - poverty; strength is weakness.

N.D. Levitov highlights the certainty of character, its integrity, complexity, dynamism, originality, strength, firmness.

Most researchers distinguish in the structure of the existing character, first of all, two sides: content and form. They are inseparable from each other and constitute an organic unity. Content character is the orientation of the personality, i.e. its material and spiritual needs, interests, ideals and social attitudes. The content of the character is manifested in the form of certain individual-peculiar relations that speak of the selective activity of a person. In different forms character expresses various ways of manifestation of relationships, temperament, fixed emotional and volitional characteristics of behavior.

In addition to the two sides noted above, in domestic psychology, in the structure of character, such individual personality traits are represented as intellectual, emotional and volitional. For this reason, researchers identify in the structure of character temperament, will, conviction, needs and interests, feelings, intellect.

Character is an inseparable whole. But it is impossible to study and understand such a complex whole as character without highlighting in it individual aspects or typical manifestations, the so-called , character trait. Character traits are understood as individual habitual forms of human behavior in which his attitude to reality is realized.

Character traits must be considered and evaluated in relation to each other. Each character trait acquires its own meaning, often completely different, depending on its relationship with other traits. For example, caution without a combination of decisiveness can make a person inactive.

In the character structure, two groups of traits are distinguished /

To the first group include features that express the orientation of the personality: stable needs, interests, inclinations, goals and ideals, as well as a person's worldview in relation to the surrounding reality. These traits are individually unique ways of manifesting the relationship of the individual to reality.

To the second group include intellectual, volitional and emotional character traits.

In the very general view all character traits can be divided into basic, leading, setting a general direction for the development of the whole complex of its manifestations, and secondary, determined by the main. If the leading feature is indecisiveness, then the person, first of all, fears "no matter how something happens", and all his attempts, for example, to help his neighbor usually end in inner feelings and self-justifications. If the leading feature is altruism, then the person does not hesitate to help his neighbor. Knowledge of the leading features allows you to understand the essence of character, its main manifestations.

From the totality of relations between the individual and the surrounding reality, character-forming forms of relations should be distinguished. The most important distinguishing feature of such relationships is the decisive, paramount or general vital importance of certain objects for a person. These relationships simultaneously serve as the basis for the classification of the most important character traits. The character of a person is manifested in the system relations:

- to other people(at the same time, such character traits as sociability - isolation, truthfulness - deceit, tact - coarseness);

- to the point(responsibility - dishonesty, diligence - laziness);

- to yourself(modesty - narcissism, self-criticism - self-confidence, pride - humility);

- to things, property(generosity - greed, frugality - extravagance, accuracy - slovenliness).

It is necessary to note a certain convention of this classification and a close relationship, interpenetration of these aspects of relations. Despite the fact that these relationships are the most important from the point of view of character formation, they do not immediately become character traits. There is a well-known sequence in the transition of these relations into character properties.

Character researchers note that it can be expressed to a greater or lesser extent. Excessive severity of individual features is characteristic and their combinations are defined by researchers as character accentuation. According to the famous psychiatrist K. Leonhard, in 20-50% of people, some character traits are so pointed (ie accentuated) that this leads to conflicts and neuropsychic disorders.

Yu.B. Gippenreiter notes three significant differences between an accentuated character and character pathology. Firstly, an accentuated character can manifest itself throughout a person’s life, escalates only in adolescence, and then smoothes out. Secondly, the features of accentuated characters do not appear in any situation, but under certain circumstances. Thirdly, the social maladjustment of the personality with accentuations either does not occur at all, or is short in time.

The most famous are the classifications of accentuated character types according to A.E. Lichko and K. Leonhard. The German scientist K. Leonhard identifies 12 types of character accentuations. Its classification is based on an assessment of the style of communication of a person with other people. Types of character accentuations are divided by K. Leonhard into two groups according to the principle of accentuation of properties of either character or temperament. He refers demonstrative, pedantic, stuck, excitable types to accentuations of character traits. The remaining variants of accentuations (hyperthymic, dysthymic, cycloid, anxious, emotive, exalted, introverted) he refers to temperament accentuations.

K.Leonhard's classification represents the following types of character actors:

Hyperthymic type. It is distinguished by extreme contact, a predominance of high spirits, increased talkativeness, expressiveness of gestures, facial expressions, pantomimics. In communication, there is a spontaneous deviation from the original topic of conversation. People of this type are energetic, initiative, with optimism and a thirst for activity. Repulsive traits inherent in this type: frivolity, insufficiently serious attitude to their official and family duties, sometimes irritability.

Disty type. It is characterized by low contact, taciturnity, pessimistic mood. People of this type lead a secluded lifestyle, homebodies, tend to obey rather than demonstrate. Attractive character traits for communication partners are seriousness, conscientiousness and

strange sense of justice. The repulsive features of this psychotype in communication: slowness, passivity, individualism.

cycloid type. People of this type are characterized by fairly frequent periodic mood swings. In a period of high mood, they are sociable, and in a period of depression, they are closed. During a spiritual upsurge, they behave like people with a hyperthymic character accentuation, and during a recession - with a distimic one.

Excitable type. It is characterized by low contact, sullenness, boringness. People of this type have delayed verbal and non-verbal reactions. In a calm state, they are conscientious, accurate. In a state of emotional arousal, they are prone to swearing, conflicts, and have poor control over their behavior.

Stuck type. People of moderate sociability, prone to moralizing, touchy, suspicious, conflict, have a heightened sensitivity to justice. They are characterized by the desire to achieve high results in any activity, to make high demands on themselves and others, discipline.

Pedantic type. People of this type are distinguished by excessive formalism, pedantry in any situation. The positive features of such a person are conscientiousness, accuracy, reliability in business.

Anxious type. He is characterized by low sociability, self-doubt, suspiciousness, timidity, low mood background. People of this type rarely conflict with others, tend to rely on a strong personality in situations of confrontation. Their positive features are diligence, goodwill, self-criticism.

Emotive type. It is characterized by the desire to communicate in a narrow circle of friends and relatives, where they are well understood. Such people are overly sensitive, touchy, tearful. At the same time, they are distinguished by kindness, compassion, empathy, diligence.

Demonstrative type. People of this type are very sociable, strive for leadership, dominance, like to be in the spotlight. They are self-confident, proud, easily adapt to a new social situation, prone to intrigue, boasting, hypocritical and selfish. Positive traits: artistry, courtesy, non-standard thinking, the ability to encourage other people to do something.

exalted type. People of this type have high contact, talkativeness, amorousness, they can be in conflict. These are altruists, attentive to friends and relatives. They have bright sincere feelings, often artistic taste. Negative features of people of this type: alarmism, susceptibility to despair, momentary moods.

Extrovert type. It differs from other types by openness to any information, readiness to listen and help anyone who asks, conformity. People of this type have a high degree sociability, talkative, compliant, executive. It is difficult for them to be organized in everyday life and at work. Ottal-

nodding features: frivolity, thoughtlessness of actions, a tendency to spread rumors, gossip.

Iptroverted type. People of this type are characterized by low contact, isolation, isolation from reality, and a tendency to philosophize. Focused on your inner world, on their assessment of the subject or event, and not on the object as such. They are prone to loneliness, when trying to unceremoniously interfere in their personal lives, they enter into conflicts. Restrained, principled, prone to introspection, have strong convictions. Their actions are determined primarily by their own internal installation. At the same time, they are overly stubborn in defending their unrealistic views.

The described types of character accentuations appear, as noted above, inconsistently. During education and self-education, character accentuations are smoothed out, harmonized, since the character structure is mobile, dynamic and changes throughout a person’s life.

Abilities as individual characteristics of a person are studied by various sciences: philosophy, sociology, medicine and others, but none of them studies the problem of abilities as deeply and comprehensively as psychology. For psychology, more than for any other science, it is important to study the abilities of each individual. It is through abilities that a person becomes a subject of activity in society, through the development of abilities a person reaches his peak in professional and personal growth (act - Greek "peak", hence the name of the new scientific discipline - acmeology, studying the laws of such an ascent and its characteristics).

A serious contribution to the study of the problem of abilities was made by domestic scientists S.L. Rubinshtein, B.M. Teplov, N.S. Leites, V.N. Druzhinin, V.D. Shadrikov.

In domestic psychology, two directions can be distinguished in the interpretation of the problem of abilities. The first - psychophysiological - explores the relationship between the basic properties of the nervous system (inclinations) and the general mental abilities of a person (works by E.A. Golubeva, V.M. Rusalov); the second - the study of abilities in individual, play, educational, labor activity (from the active approach of A.N. Leontiev). Then, within the framework of the school of S.L. Rubinshtein, abilities began to be considered as the development of methods of activity based on inclinations.

Inclinations are congenital anatomical and physiological features of the brain, nervous system, human constitution, etc., which make up natural basis development of his abilities. By nature, people are endowed with various inclinations; they underlie the formation of abilities. In other words, the foundations of abilities are laid down genetically and depend on inclinations.

In psychology, there is another type of inclinations - acquired. They are spoken about in those cases when, in order to develop any ability, you need to learn something or gain experience.

Abilities are individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another, on which the success of an activity depends.

Domestic psychologist A.V. Petrovsky compared abilities with grain, which has yet to be developed-

sya. The grain thrown into the ground has the opportunity only under certain conditions (structure, soil moisture, climate, etc.) to turn into an ear. Likewise, human abilities are only an opportunity for acquiring knowledge and skills in a favorable social situation. At the same time, this same possibility can become a reality as a result of training, education and a person's own activity.

In psychology, there are various classifications of abilities. First of all, researchers distinguish natural (biologically determined) and specific human abilities. Many of the natural abilities are common to humans and animals, such as perception, memory. Most human abilities are based on natural ones.

Another approach to the structure of abilities reveals two types of them: general and special. General abilities are those that determine the success of a person in various activities. These include mental abilities, speech, performance, development of the musculoskeletal system, etc. Special abilities determine success in certain activities. These include mathematical, musical, literary, etc.

Theoretical and practical abilities differ in that the former reflect a person's inclination to abstract-theoretical reflections, and the latter to specific practical actions.

From a developmental point of view, psychologists distinguish potential and topical capabilities.

Potential- these are the possibilities for the development of the individual, manifesting themselves every time they face new tasks that need to be solved. However, the development of an individual depends not only on his psychological properties, but also on those social conditions in which these potentialities may or may not be realized. In this case, they talk about the relevance of abilities. Due to the lack of objective conditions, opportunities, not everyone can realize their potential abilities in accordance with their psychological nature. Thus, actual abilities make up only a part of potential ones.

Educational and creative abilities reflect the nature of knowledge. Educational ones determine the success of mastering any information, and creative ones are associated with the creation of new ideas, discoveries, inventions, etc. In many cases, the basis for the development of creative abilities is the ability to learn.

A special place among socially determined abilities is given to ability to communicate. It includes interpersonal perception to evaluate people, the ability to get in touch with different people, interact with them, influence them, etc.

The combination of various highly developed abilities is called giftedness which enables a person to successfully express themselves in activities. Talent is a combination of abilities that allows a person not only successfully, but also in an original way, to independently perform complex activities. The highest level of development of abilities, when a person achieves

outstanding success in society, in the field of culture, is genius.

The nature of human abilities causes quite heated discussions among scientists. Are abilities innate or do they develop over a lifetime?

Proponents of the idea of ​​innate abilities argue that they are biologically determined and their manifestation depends entirely on the inherited fund. In their opinion, training and education can only accelerate the process of manifestation of abilities, but even without pedagogical influence, they will definitely manifest themselves. To prove this position, the researchers cite examples such as the repetition of abilities in children of talented musicians, scientists, artists (Bach, Darwin, Tolstoy dynasties).

The results of genetic studies in support of the inheritance of abilities were obtained in experiments on animals using artificial selection methods. Rats were trained to find their way through a maze. "Smart" rats were selected, which coped with the task more successfully, and "stupid" ones. Then crossbreeding took place within each of the groups. In the sixth generation, the offspring of "smart" rats went through the maze much faster than their "parents", and the indicators of "stupid" rats were even worse.

The results of such studies show the possibility of accumulating a genetic predisposition to successful learning. But how much success in the development of abilities depends only on hereditary inclinations, it is difficult to say.

Representatives of another point of view believe that the characteristics of the psyche are determined by the quality of upbringing and education, and that every person can develop any abilities. Supporters of this direction refer to cases when the children of the most primitive tribes, having received appropriate training, were no different from educated Europeans. Here they also talk about the so-called "Mowgli children", which convincingly testify to irreparable damage, even the impossibility of human development outside of society.

According to the American scientist Ushbi, abilities are determined primarily by the program of intellectual activity that was formulated in childhood. In accordance with their program, some people solve creative problems, while others solve only reproductive ones. At present, adherents of this idea in the United States are creating special centers for "growing" gifted children. A number of cases are known when in various fields of activity (science, art) around one teacher a large group of talented students arose, in terms of their number and level of abilities not explainable from the point of view of simple laws of statistics. Yu.B. Gippenreiter in his work "Introduction to General Psychology" gives an example from the experience of the Moscow music teacher M.P. known to be the highest). He believed that there were no disabled children.

Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that environmental conditions and heredity are

ability development factors. In other words, human abilities are formed and developed both through good inclinations (heredity) and through training and education (social environment).

Human character traits and their manifestation

03.04.2015

Snezhana Ivanova

Character traits always leave an imprint on a person's behavior, and also affect his actions.

Throughout his life, each person shows his individual characteristics, which are reflected not only in his behavior or the specifics of communication, but also determine the attitude towards activities, himself and other people. All these features, manifested in life, both in scientific use and in everyday life, are called character.

Definition of "character"

In psychology, character is understood as a certain set of human traits that are pronounced and relatively stable. Character traits always leave an imprint on a person's behavior, and also affect his actions.

In psychological dictionaries one can find enough a large number of definitions of character, but they all boil down to the fact that character is a set of the most persistent individual psychological characteristics of a person, which always manifest themselves in her activities and social behavior, as well as in the system of relations:

• to the team;
• to other people;
• to work;
• to the surrounding reality (to the world);
• to yourself.

The term itself character» ( in lane from Greek character - chasing or printing) was introduced by the ancient Greek philosopher and naturalist, a student of Plato and closest friend of Aristotle Theophrastus. And here it is worth paying special attention to the translation of the word - chasing or printing. Indeed, the character seems to emerge as a kind of pattern on a person's personality, thus creating a unique seal that distinguishes its owner from other individuals. Such a design, as well as a coat of arms or an emblem on the personal seal of the medieval nobility, is drawn on a certain basis with the help of specific signs and letters. Temperament is the basis for engraving an individual personality, and bright and individual character traits are the basis for engraving .

Character traits as a tool for psychological assessment and understanding of a person

In psychology, character traits are understood as individual, rather complex features that are the most revealing for a person and allow big share probabilities to predict his behavior in a particular situation. That is, knowing that a particular person has certain traits, one can predict his subsequent actions and possible actions in a particular case. For example, if a person has a pronounced feature of responsiveness, then there is a high probability that at a difficult moment in life he will come to the rescue.

A feature is one of the most important and essential parts of a person, its stable quality and a well-established way of interacting with the surrounding reality. The personality trait crystallizes and reflects its integrity. The personality trait of a person is real way solutions to many life situations (both activity and communicative) and therefore they need to be considered from the point of view of the future. So, character traits are a prediction of the actions and actions of a person, since they are persistent and make a person's behavior predictable and more obvious. Due to the fact that each person is unique, there is a huge variety of unique character traits.

Each person acquires special features of his character throughout his life in society, and it is impossible to consider all individual signs (features) as characterological. Such will be only those who, regardless of the life situation and circumstances, will always manifest themselves in an identical way of behavior and the same attitude in the surrounding reality.

Thus, in order to assess personality psychologists (to characterize it) as an individual, it is necessary to determine not the entire sum of a person’s individual qualities, but to highlight those traits and qualities of character that are distinctive from other people. Despite the fact that these features are individual and different, they must constitute a structural integrity.

Character traits of a person are a priority in the study of his personality, as well as for understanding and predicting his actions, actions and behavior. Indeed, we perceive and understand any kind of human activity as a manifestation of certain traits of his character. But, characterizing a personality as a social being, it is not so much the manifestation of traits in activity that becomes important, but what exactly this activity is aimed at (and also what the human will serves). In this case, one should pay attention to the content side of the character, and more specifically, to those character traits of the personality that make up the general structure as its mental warehouse. They are expressed in: integrity-contradiction, unity-disintegration, static-dynamic, breadth-narrowness, strength-weakness.

List of human traits

human character- this is not only a certain combination of some features (or a random set of them), but the most complex mental formation, which is a certain system. This system consists of many of the most stable personality traits, as well as its properties, manifested in various systems human relations (to work, to one's work, to the world around, to things, to oneself and to other people). In these relations, the structural nature of the character, its content and individuality of originality finds its expression. The table below describes the main character traits (their groups) that find their manifestation in various systems of human relations.

Persistent traits (symptom complexes) of character, manifested in personality relationships

In addition to the traits that manifest themselves in the system of relations, psychologists have identified traits of a person's character that can be attributed to the cognitive and emotional-volitional spheres. So character traits are divided into:

• cognitive (or intellectual) - curiosity, theoreticality, criticality, resourcefulness, analyticity, thoughtfulness, practicality, flexibility, frivolity;
• emotional (sensibility, passion, emotionality, cheerfulness, sentimentality, etc.);
• volitional traits (perseverance, determination, independence, etc.);
• moral traits (kindness, honesty, justice, humanity, cruelty, responsiveness, patriotism, etc.).

Some psychologists suggest distinguishing between motivational (or productive) and instrumental character traits. Motivational traits are understood as those that drive a person, that is, they encourage him to certain actions and deeds. (they can also be called trait-targets). Instrumental features give a person's activity a peculiar style and individuality. They refer to the very manner and way of performing an activity (they can also be called trait-ways).

Representative of the humanistic trend in psychology Gordon Allport personality traits are grouped into three main categories:

• dominant (those that most of all determine all forms of human behavior, his actions and deeds, such as selfishness or kindness);
• ordinary (which manifest themselves equally in all spheres of life, for example, parity and humanity);
• secondary (they do not have the same influences as dominant or ordinary, for example, it can be diligence or a love of music).

So, the main character traits are manifested in various spheres of mental activity and the system of personality relations. All these relationships are fixed in different ways of action and forms of human behavior that are most familiar to him. Between existing features, certain regular relationships are always established that allow you to create a structural character. She, in turn, helps to predict, according to the character trait of a person already known to us, others who are hidden from us, which makes it possible to predict his subsequent actions and actions.

Any structure, including character, has its own hierarchy. Thus, character traits also have a certain hierarchy, so there are main (leading) and secondary traits that are subordinate to the leading ones. It is possible to predict the actions of a person and his behavior, relying not only on the main features, but also on secondary ones (despite the fact that they are less significant and do not manifest themselves so clearly).

Typical and individual in character

The bearer of character is always a person, and his traits are manifested in activities, relationships, actions, behavior, ways of acting in the family, in a team, at work, among friends, etc. This manifestation always reflects the typical and individual in the character, because they exist in an organic unity (thus, the typical is always the basis for the individual manifestation of character).

What is meant by typical character? A character is called typical if there is a set of essential features that are common to a certain group of people. This set of features reflects general terms and Conditions life of a particular group. In addition, these traits should be manifested (to a greater or lesser extent) in each representative of this group. The totality of distinctive typical features is a condition for the emergence of a certain.

Typical and individual in character is most clearly expressed in a person's relationship to other people, because interpersonal contacts are always conditioned by certain social conditions of life, the corresponding level of cultural and historical development of society and the formed spiritual world of the person himself. Attitude towards other people is always evaluative and manifests itself in different ways (approval-condemnation, support-misunderstanding) depending on the existing circumstances. This manifestation is expressed depending on the person's assessment of the actions and behavior of others, or rather their positive and negative character traits.

Typical traits of a person's character in terms of their intensity are manifested in each individually. So, for example, individual traits can reveal themselves so strongly and vividly that they become unique in their own way. It is in this case that the typical in character passes into the individual.

Positive character traits and their manifestation

Both typical and individual in character, finds its manifestation in the systems of personality relations. This is due to the presence in the character of a person of certain traits (both positive and negative). So, for example, in relation to work or one's own business, such positive character traits as diligence, discipline and organization are manifested.

As for interpersonal communications and attitudes towards other people, the following are good character traits: honesty, openness, justice, adherence to principles, humanity, etc. All these features allow you to build constructive communication and quickly establish contacts with people around you.

It should be noted that there are a lot of individual character traits. But among them it is necessary to single out, first of all, those that have the greatest influence on the formation of a person’s spirituality and him (it is in this context that the best trait of a person’s character, humanity, finds its manifestation). These traits are even more important in the process of upbringing and development of the younger generation, because the same traits are formed differently depending on situations, the presence of other character traits and the orientation of the personality itself.

Highlighting the good qualities of character, one should not forget about their possible curvature, or the presence of obvious negative traits that a person needs to fight. Only in this case will the harmonious and holistic development of the personality be observed.

Negative character traits and their manifestation

In relation to the behavior, actions and activities of other people, a person always forms traits of a certain character - positive and negative. This happens according to the principle of analogy (that is, identification with what is acceptable) and opposition (with what is included in the list of unacceptable and wrong). Self-esteem can be positive or negative character, which primarily depends on the level of development and the ability to adequately assess oneself ( that is, from the formed level). A high level of self-consciousness is evidenced by the presence of the following positive features: high demands on oneself, and self-esteem, as well as responsibility. And, on the contrary, such negative character traits as self-confidence, selfishness, immodesty, etc., speak of an insufficient level of development of self-consciousness.

Negative character traits (in principle, as well as positive ones are manifested) in the four main systems of human relations. For example, in the "attitude to work" system, among the negative features are irresponsibility, carelessness and formality. And among the negative features that manifest themselves in interpersonal communication, it is worth highlighting isolation, stinginess, boastfulness and disrespect.

It should be noted that negative character traits, which are manifested in the system of human relations with other people, almost always contribute to the emergence of conflicts, misunderstanding and aggression, which subsequently leads to the emergence of destructive forms of communication. That is why every person who wants to live in harmony with others and with himself should think about cultivating positive traits in his character and getting rid of destructive, negative traits.

The personality of each person is endowed only with its inherent combination of psychological traits and characteristics that form its individuality, constituting the originality of a person, his difference from other people. Individuality is manifested in the traits of temperament, character, habits, prevailing interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, imagination), in abilities, individual style of activity, etc.

61. Nomothetic / Idiographic

Classifications of personality by types and traits

Nomothetic approach (features)- a certain set of traits is inherent in all people, but in varying degrees of severity.
You can build a profile of personality traits.

Idiographic approach (types)- each person has a unique (only inherent) set of traits.
You can determine whether a person belongs to one type or another.

62. Personality types/traits

Knowing the characteristics of a person's personality, we can predict his most likely behavior in a given situation.

general level - types, at the next level - traits, below - the level of habitual reactions, below - specific reactions, i.e. actual observable behavior.

At the level of types, Eysenck analyzes personality in three areas: neuroticism, extraversion-introversion and psychotism. Most deeply, he explores neuroticism and extraversion-introversion.

His theory is based on the idea that people differ on the basis of heredity - in the reactivity of the nervous system, the speed and strength of conditioned reactions. These individual differences correlate with personality dimensions of neuroticism and extraversion-introversion. In studies of the structure of personality, Eysenck distinguishes two main types of personality measurement:

introversion - extraversion

neuroticism (instability) - stability

Personality traits (compendium according to Zaitseva):

Natural traits that are common to all people.

Traits that change over the course of history are common to a group of people.

The features that develop in the course of an individual history of personality development are individual personality traits.

Trait Analysis:

Analysis of biography facts

Questioning and interviewing experts - people who have regular business and personal contacts with the object of study

Questionnaires (the subject acts as an expert of his life)

Personality tests (in the process of research, the subject shows the trait being studied).

Multifactorial questionnaires (revealing the profile of personality traits).

The mental properties of a person in her behavior, in the actions and deeds that she performs, are both manifested and formed at the same time. Therefore, the static point of view, which proceeds from the properties of the personality as something originally given and considers its actions and deeds only as a manifestation of an independent, unchanging essence, is equally wrong, as well as the dynamic point of view, which completely dissolves the personality in the situation and, trying to completely explain the behavior from dynamic relationships that develop in it, turns all the properties of the personality only into changeable states, devoid of any, even relative, stability